Body Cavities and Water Compartments Lab
Question # 1
Explain by giving one example of why it is important to understand the relationship between the extracellular compartments and the intracellular compartment.
Intracellular compartments comprise at least 40% of body fluids that make 2/3 of the total body’s water. Its primary constituents are proteins, potassium, and organic anions. Cellular metabolism determines the inner constituents and cell membranes control the flow of ions and other constitutes into and out of the cell. Every different cell of the body might have a different ionic constitution depending upon the location, tissue, and functioning of the cell. It also depends on the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cell in a particular location of the body. ECF is only 20% of the body weight that makes up 1/3 of body fluids. It is primarily composed of NaCl and NaHCO3 ions. These fluids in ICF and ECF are highly balanced. Their importance and relation to each other are determined when fluid disturbances in ICF and consequently in ECF (vice versa) result in different clinical conditions.
ECF and ICF are in osmotic equilibrium. In ECF hypo-osmotic condition ECF volume is increased hence the osmolality is reduced. It is called hypo-osmotic expansion. In another condition, hyposmotic contraction occurs due to excessive salt wastage from the kidney due to some kidney disease. This also decreases osmolality and also reduces ECF fluids.
Identifying Tissue Types Lab
Mitosis is a body process in which a cell separates chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two identical daughter cells. It is usually followed by Cytokinesis. Morphology in biology is termed as the shape, structure of organs.
Q #1: Give two examples of how the morphology of the tissue type gave an advantage to the function of the organ
Ans #1: Morphology of tissue type plays a vital role in the functioning of a human organ, For Example, in women’s Shukra tissue use for the reproductive system, and if its size and structure get disturbed it causes infertility in women. Tissues help a lot in keeping women’s reproductive system effective. Human skin has also many tissues which reconstruct themselves, skin tissues recover human skin if it gets heal or cut. With the help of the morphology of tissue, skin is always able to regrow.
Phases of Mitosis
Q # 1 What does the percent of each phase suggest in terms of time spent by the cell in each stage?
Ans # 1: Around 70% of each phase suggests that the cell spends most time in interphase, the most of remaining time in prophase, and least time in Metaphase. Cell spent 50-60% of the remaining time in prophase. The total percentage of time that plants and animals undergo mitosis is 67% and 56.4% respectively.
Question# 2 How can the above information be used to estimate the amount of time the cell spends in mitosis?
Ans. On basis of the above observation, we can say that overall very little cell is spent in mitosis. E.Coli completes its prophase stage in 19 minutes and 20 seconds, 30 seconds to complete metaphase, and 15 seconds to complete anaphase and telophase.
Time Spent in each phase of mitosis can also be calculated with the aid of the following formula:
Percentage= # of cells in phase________
# of cells undergoing mitosis
Question# 3 How can this information be extrapolated to the cellular behavior of normal vs. cancerous cells?
Ans # 3: Above information can be explored to cellular behavior of normal cell vs. cancerous cells, on the basis of time spent in mitosis, if there is any disturbance in cell timing spent in mitosis, it causes, protein reactions, protein secretion, etc. this information can also helpful in estimating following facts:
Cancerous cells are growing slow or fast?
What kind of mitosis pattern is expected in the next sixty days?
Is the pattern of tissue periodic or erratic?
Skeletal System Part 1 Lab (Axial)
Question # 1 What advantages do the sutures of the skull give to the skull of the newborn?
In the human skull, known as “cranium”, there are multiple fibrous joints, anterior fontanelle and coronal suture, sagittal suture and lambdoid suture, and sagittal suture which are assistive to maintain elasticity and fibrous strength of the skull. Normally the bones of the skull in infants are very flexible and soft ones which are strengthened in grown-up individuals as cranial sutures may turn into strong bones thoroughly. The sutures of the skull play an instrumental role to support all functional activities of infants like supervision of intracranial pressure, cerebral oxygenation, blood flow, and alacrity of the brain. The sutures of the skull are assembled to locate every sensor on the opposite position for the performance of their functional actions and infants’ skulls also provide protection against any kind of injury which may cause brain impairment.
Question # 2 What advantages do the curvatures of the vertebra offer to the overall erect axial skeleton?
According to the anatomical terms, the vertebral column comprises a column of 24 vertebrae, intervertebral discs, sacrum, and coccyx in dorsal and this vertebral column is known as the spinal cord or spinal canal. This vertebral column is divided into several curvatures at different positions including cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and pelvic ones. All these curvatures of the spinal cord are assistive to erect the human skeleton and trigger the proper movements of all bodily parts easily. All these curvatures are flexible and easy to bend down wherever individual moves and also straighten the whole bodily structure which is the main advantage of such curves.
Cardio-Vascular Studies Lab
List concluding comments as asked for on:
Question # 1 What implication does this have regarding the left and right ventricular ability to generate blood pressure?
The left and right ventricular is very assistive device to pump blood pressure in the balanced form by going through different phases of all mechanism of blood circulatory system of human body. The medical scientists and researchers have observed by different devices that forceful waves of blood flows occurs in Right and left ventricular and pulmonary artery within the range of 0 to 300 ms as all these parts of circulatory system is composed to pump blood flow via right and left ventricular and pulmonary artery. The contraction and expansion of ventricular muscles helps to generate balanced flow of blood pressure in normal hearts of human beings.
Question # 2 Notice the presence of thin strands tethering the valves to the ventricular wall. These are the chordae tendinae. They pull the values towards the ventricles when the ventricles contract. What could their purpose be?
The chordae tendineae are thin cord like strands which are connected with papillary muscles, tricuspid valve and the mitral valve, presented in human heart. The main function of these valves and the chordae tendineae is to prevent backflow of blood into right artrium during the process of ventrical contraction when blood pressuer is pushed forward towards the tricuspid valve, blood flow is prevented to enter in right artrium with the help of flapping of these thin strands like structure, chordae tendineae. The chordae tendineae is composed of 80% collagen, having almost 20% of elastin and endothelial cells which supports the function of contraction due to its greater elasticity.
Question # 3 In what phase of the cardiac cycle do the coronary arteries fill?
Cardiac cycle is taken as whole process of blood circulation or flow from the initial phase of heart beat to last one, showing the heart rate. There are three main stages of blood flow including atrial systole, ventricular systole, cardiac diastole etc. there is a series of decrease and increase in blood flow during the cardiac cycle which are essential to create normal blood pressure. The coronary arteries are a network of arteries which supply blood to all chambers of heart during the cardiac cycle. These arteries are divided into branches from aorta at the joint point of aorta and left ventrical. The right coronary arteries are responsible to supply blood to right artrium and ventrical and vice versa.
Anatomy of the Digestive System Lab
Question # 1 What would be the impact of sympathetic overtones on Gl motility?
Investigation in gastrointestinal motility has given new orientation to the medical researchers with great interest to observe the developmental processes of gastrointestinal motility. The nitric oxide plays important role in neutral transduction and gastrointestinal motility which are regularized various physiological functions. The gastrointestinal (Gl) motility in immature stage in fetus development may cause some impairment of oral feeing or incoming necrotizing enterocolitis. The basic role of muscarinic system is important to demonstrate a particular developmental muscarinic receptor subtype and regulation of Gl motility to treat the preterm fetus or newborn properly on time.
Question # 2 How would this explain a doctor or nurses interest in the presence of bowel sounds on a patient post-surgically?
The presence of bowel sounds help the doctors or nurses to identify the series of events taking place inside the stomach. Such movements might enema or ulcerative colitis in a patient. Post surgery the whole system is more agitated therefore the bowel sounds are more enhanced aswell.
Question # 3 Can you offer a logical mechanism for fecal impaction based on the chief function of the colon?
Fecal impaction is the most common cause of fecal incontinence in elderly and children. However, it can be controlled with some education and training. The condition also responds to the laxatives. It can be easily identified with physical examination and history.
colon is basically responsible for the fecal impact in a person. The main changes that might occur maybe due to diarrhea mostly in children & often in adults as well. As aging occur the smooth muscle layers, for eg. The longitudinal and circular along with an augmentation in the elastic and connective tissues may result in constipation and fecal impaction as well.
The disruption of internal anal sphincter (IAS) and external anal sphincter (EAS) is the main cause of this impaction.
Reproductive System Lab
Question # 1 Can you compare the prostate and the uterus?
There is a great difference between prostate and the uterus, though both are main part of human reproductive system. The prostate is a multifaceted exocrine gland of reproductive systems of male mammalians which vary from species to species in functionality, composition of chemical substances and physiological shapes. The prostate is categorized into three parts, Posterior (urethra and rectum), Superior (upper surface of urogenital diaphragm and urinary bladder) and Lateral (anterior fibers of levator ani muscle).
The prostate plays functional role to secrete and store the most important male sex hormone, semen, comprising spermatozoa, composition of 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid and slightly alkaline (pH 7.29) fluid. The prostate supports some muscular strength to secret semen during ejaculation and neutralize the acidity of vaginal tract in order to place sperm for long time. The uterus is the main part of female reproductive system in all mammals, particularly in humans. The uterus is attached with one end of cervix, opening in vaginal tract while other is linked with the Fallopian tubes. The uterus is also known as womb where all process of fertilization takes place, undergoing multiple stages of development of embryo, fetus, gestates and fully grown up child.
Question # 2 How can one suspect prostate infection or tumor?
The growth of cell cancer in the prostate gland causes the prostate infection or tumor. The uncontrollable division of the prostate cells shows the symptoms of incoming danger of cancer. When division of cell occurs continuously without any control or order and this mass of tissue or cells causes the growth of tumor in the prostate. If you suspect such kind of tumor growth in your body, you should consult doctor for immediate treatment. You should be alarmed when you feel some symptoms like frequent urination, painful or burning urination or inability to urinate, weakness to interrupt flow of urine, aching ejaculation or inability to erect male sex organ, bleeding in semen or urine or frequent stiffness in lower back, thighs and hips etc.
Question # 3 What role would the junctional epithelia play in women’s susceptibility to cervical cancer?
The medical research has shown the close link of squamous and columnar epithelia with anal canal and cervix uteri of postnatal period and fetus which are interconnected with each other. The junctional epithelium is a epithelial lining, midway part which comprises multi-layers of epidermoid cells. The ultrasonic research shows that junctional epithelium helps to develop anal basaloid carcinomas and some cervical squamous carcinomas. When a woman undergoes a cervical cancer, this is vulnerable due to Loss of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) which affects the normal functionality and behavior of cervical carcinoma cells, causing the abnormal functions of cervix cells.
Question # 4 What missing ingredient in non-pregnant women (and men too) would be found in the urine pregnant women (the basis of pregnancy detection kits)?
In early pregnancy there’s one hormone called “human chorionic gonadotropin” (hCG) released by the placenta when embryo (fertilized egg) implants in the uterus. Hence, it can be detected with 6 days after conception. After the egg is fertilized in fallopian tube, it travels towards the uterus and implants there on the uterus wall. Placenta develops and starts producing hCG in abundance. From the time of fertilization till implantation it takes a week. Non-pregnant women and men do not have this hormone in their urine.