Introduction
Amphibious operations refer to military operations which are carried out by naval and air forces on board a ship or a craft on a hostile beach. Such operations involve well coordinated approaches among the forces that are trained to carry out an action of a common objective. Amphibious operations are complex and calls for thorough training, flexibility and organization to minimize the risks that come with it. It has been in use since the 16th Century and still continues up to date.
The modern amphibious operations present themselves in form of commando insertions done by zodiacs, patrol boats and mini-submersibles. A beachhead is also another modern military move witnessed to be founded on amphibious principles and tactics. There are basically four types of amphibious operations; raids, assaults, demonstrations and withdrawals (Green, p.7). This paper will look at amphibious operations in its historical aspect and analyze how the lessons learnt from the concept have been used in the modern USMC and amphibious operations.
Amphibious Operations
Amphibious operations are carried out with a primary focus of achieving the following; impeach combat operations further, divert the enemy’s attention to create a loophole in their defense, win over rule over a given area from the enemy and finally to use the land as a base for the naval and air force. Since the concept puts the forces in high risk, there are laid down procedure, sequence and plans; though the steps sometimes overlap, what matters is that they are carried out fast and to the latter. The whole idea is to get the enemy flat footed by surprising them by a swift attack and capitalizing on their weakness.
A well planned and executed amphibious operation has its success pegged on the mobility and flexibility of the forces. And if the attacking forces succeed in making the enemies’ forces make a costly and wasteful move, the battle will definitely fall to the attackers’ advantage (Green, pp.8-9).
Historical Context
Amphibious operations dates back to the 16th Century where it was one of the most favored military move, though quiet complex. This section gives a highlight of some of the amphibious operations that have taken place in the past centuries, their successes as well as their drivers and forces behind them. These historical wars were more massive than the small time commando operations that are witnessed currently.
The Battle of Guadalcanal
This battle took place on the Guadalcanal Island. It was driven by Allied forces headed by Americans with the main intention of taking over Tulagi and Florida from the Japanese forces. The Japanese hit back using their naval forces but to no avail; they finally dropped their efforts and fled Guadalcanal. During the war, the Allied forces went down on offensive operation strategy while the Japanese who were humiliated embarked on defensive initiative (Clemens, pp.22-25).
The Battle of Saipan
It was fought in 1944 during the Second World War. The dominant significant amphibious move was the Normandy landing. And just as the Guadalcanal battle, this war was carried by the Allied forces commandeered by Lieutenant Gen. Holland Smith against the IJA (Imperial Japanese Army) under Lieutenant Gen. Yoshitsugu Saito. It involved a total of 15 battleships and 11 cruisers from the Allied forces. The surprise attacks by the U.S forces triggered response from the IJA,–a response which caused them a massive loss; hundreds of planes and aircraft carriers. Even thought the Japanese vowed to fight up to the last man. Their defense was hopeless as they were thoroughly humiliated (Harold, pp.167-175).
The Battle of Okinawa
Simply referred to as the “operation iceberg”; it took place on the Ryukyu Islands din 1945. It has gone on history as one of the largest assault during the WW II. The high number of the forces and the duration of the war earn it the title and the nickname. The defendants (Japanese) suffered a casualty running to about 100,000 troops while the Allied forces got half that. Okinawa was to serve the Allied force as stepping stone for a major attack on the Island which was only 350 miles from mainland Japan. But this was never to be, the location was quickly turned into a military base which was used to organize the Hiroshima Nagasaki bombing that ended the WW II (John, p.711).
The Battle of the Philippines
The Filipino and the United States were on the defensive side on this particular battle which saw the Japanese forces invading Philippines in 1941. The war ended in favor of the attackers (Japan). Reasons for the loss are attributed to poor training and ill equipment as well as lack of coordination. The Japanese on their part used the best of their men drawn from the first line troop. The Japanese had got three primary objectives for staging an attack on Philippines, that was; to prevent Philippines from offering the land to Americans, to get the land into their custody so that they could in turn use it as a supply base to facilitate military operations against Netherlands and finally, the Japanese wanted to secure communication lines between their homeland and the areas lying South that they had ceased (Green, p.9).
The Battle of Iwo Jima
Simply known as the Operation Detachment where America successfully fought and took over control over Iwo Jima Island in 1945. At the beginning, the war seemed to be falling to the Japanese advantage; they had amassed so much in the Island. Bunkers, Artilleries, underground tunnels and a massive defense force comprising of 22,000 men. It was the first time that America took over a homeland Island of the Japanese.
Despite what seemed like an acute preparedness from the Japanese side, more than 20,000 of them were killed in the combat with slightly more that 1,000 being taken prisoners. A total of 5,000 men drawn from American army and navy forces carried the operation with the use of thirteen artillery pieces, light and heavy machine guns totaling to two hundred and over 4,500 rifles. It was a great success that saw the U.S flag erected on the Island after only five days of the 35 day battle (Lloyd, p.26).
The Battle of Makin
It was the Pacific campaign war fought in 1943 on Gilbert Islands. Several factors acted to the advantage of the United States forces to boost their success on this war. They had abundance supply of men and materials. The Japanese had earlier occupied Pearl Harbor without any resistance and proceeded to Makin Atoll with equal ease. But when the Marines made a landing on the Island under the commandership of James Roosevelt and Evans Carlson in two submarines, the damage that they caused was so great that the Japanese had no choice but to surrender. They killed all the guard troops in combat and beheaded all the prisoners captured during the battle (Lloyd, p.27).
The Battle of Peleliu
The battle is known by the codename “Operation Stalemate II”; a clash between the United States and the Japanese during the WWI II in the Pacific Theatre. The U.S forces had planed to take over the airstrip within a period of four days but they received a great resistance from the Japanese which made the war to drag for over two months. He Battle of Peleliu presented the highest casualty of all the Pacific Wars, raising questions on its strategic value.
The Allied forces had pushed Japanese closer home and by then it was possible for the U.S bombers to hit the exact homeland of the Japanese mainland. But due to some ideological differences between the America’s joint Chiefs, this did not come to pass. The Island was ceased for varied reasons from the commanders; when the differences could not be solved, President Roosevelt intervened and a decision to use the Island as a protective base to the right flank was made. The plan flopped but it was too late to correct the loss. “It was a big lesson to the American of how wrangles can shake stable force to their very foundation (Cordesman et al. p.24).
The Battle of Tarawa
This took place in 1943 and marked the second time that the Allied forces had settled on an offensive operation after the Battle of Guadalcanal. The Japanese gave the Americans a massive resistance with their well planned and executed amphibious tactics. Their determination to fight up to the last man worked to their advantage, but to bad…it could not save them from the America’s wrath. Having secured the Guadalcanal, the U.S wanted also to take over Marshall Islands so that they would use to launch a massive offensive attack on the Japanese forces and take over control of the Marianas Islands (Wright, pp.41-52).
The Battle of Marathon
This battle took place at a time when the Greece was invaded by the Persians under the commandership of Artaphernes and Datis. The Persian naval force made a successful move in launching a surprise attack on Athens and Eretria. But the retaliation force proved too smart for the Persians at Marathon town by clipping the wings of the lightly armed Persian infantry. The war marked the end of the Persian invasion of Greece, “and from there on the Greece proceeded to make a name out of the Marathon war that also set off their development record and influence in Europe” (Lloyd, p.14).
Though the war did not bring down the Persians resources, it was a great significance to the Greece who managed to successfully defend themselves from the invasion…it was a wonderful historical victory for the Greece. It was a practical proof that the best way to counter an attack was not to subjugate, but to go on defense and surge forward by all might. The amphibious tactics that the Athens put in place made them realize that–through self confidence, self belief, good coordination and unity, a lot can be achieved (Lloyd, p.15-19).
Lessons to Modern USMC
Lessons drawn from ancient amphibious wars have been used in many wars by the United States. And the concept is still being applied even in the later days. For instance, in the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, Operations against Taiwan, the Arctic Operation (Jerauld Wright), invasion of Iraq, operations in the Foreign International Defense, Assaults in North Korea and other Special activities, Commando operations, Operation Starlite and operations by the 3rd Marine Division among others (Lloyd, p.16-21).
The modern times have seen the amphibious tactics being practiced by USMC in linking different types of forces, more particularly the sea and land forces. They are useful in covering evidence of footprints ashore; hence minimizing risks to the C2 facilities have to cope up with. The skills are also useful in supplying of foods, medical services and protective shelter to the forces on the ground without awakening attention of the enemies (Cordesman et al., p.23).
Usefulness to Amphibious Warfare
Amphibious operations have also been made useful in beachhead; a beachhead is a selected local on sore which is potentially hostile that has been seized a held by the attacking force. The area is then in turn used as a landing base for troops and materiel as well as a space to maneuver for amphibious operations that follow upon the seizure. Coordinating the forces in the sea, on land and on air is a must, and to affect this, the skills of an amphibious trained commander are required.
The historical battles the employed amphibious operation styles, especially during the Marathon Battle have made the current military forces realize the effectiveness of hoplites in a battle if applied appropriately. The formation of phalanx was a strategy that put the Greece cavalry in a vulnerable position but it in turn proved to be a vital weapon when it was used appropriately during the Plataea Battle (Lloyd, p.28).
Conclusion
The high risks accompanying the operation need nothing to be left to chance, and strength ashore is mandatory. It has to be built from a zero point to a level which can be coordinated well enough to accomplish the intended mission. The concept worked in the past and it is still in force now as most forces have used it to gain tactical advantage over their enemies. The fact that it worked to the advantage of the party that practices it well shows that the skills gained from it are still viable and can boost the effectiveness of a military mission.
Work Cited
Clemens, Martin. Alone on Guadalcanal: A Coastwatcher’s Story. Bluejacket Books. (2004). pp.22-27.
Cordesman, Anthony and Wagner, Abraham. The Lessons of Modern War – Volume IV: The Gulf War, West view Press, Oxford. (1996). pp.14-24.
Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press. (1996). pp. 7-9.
Harold, Goldberg. D-Day in the Pacific: The Battle of Saipan, Indiana University Press. (2007). pp. 167-194.
John, Toland. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945, Random House. (1970). p. 711.
Lloyd, Alan. Marathon: The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy. Souvenir Press. (2004). pp.14-28.
Wright, Derrick (2001), Tarawa 1943, Oxford: Osprey History. pp.41-52.