The phenomena of propaganda and disinformation have existed for a very long time and have their roots in the ancient world. Nevertheless, the concept of fake news has become particularly relevant due to recent political circumstances. McNair states that Donald Trump’s appearance on the political stage has made the term omnipresent and raised certain challenges related to the implementation of democratic governance (20).
Social media have been known to have a great deal of fake news, but it was the Trump election campaign and presidency that raised the question of its real impact on public processes. From a technical point of view, the Internet makes it possible to produce fake news in the form of “viral posts based on fictitious accounts made to look like news reports” (Tandoc et al. 138). Their credibility is a critical factor in their influence on public opinion. This paper seeks to define and classify fake news, analyzes its features in the context of social media, and describes its relationship to the political career of Donald Trump.
Definition and Content of Fake News
First and foremost, it is necessary to determine the difference between the classical concept of news and the actual definition of fake news. Researchers note that the term news is defined by various authors in several different ways (Tandoc et al. 140). Ordinary news primarily implies objectivity and reliability of the information provided. These criteria are the gold standard of journalists’ work, based on which their professionalism is assessed.
According to Tandoc et al., standards of objectivity and accuracy are fundamental elements of the definition of journalistic activity (140). McNair discusses an ironic term “truthiness” that gained popularity in the mid-2000s and described how the mainstream news media have attempted to create the impression of objectivity inherent in the journalistic profession (21). The irony is based on the fact that it is almost impossible to report the news objectively, and a particular journalist, in any case, presents information from his or her subjective perspective. Nevertheless, objectivity and credibility remain the main requirements for traditional news reports.
Fake news does not deliberately correspond to these criteria since it is not created to provide real data, but for some other purpose. Allcott and Gentzkow “define ‘fake news’ to be news articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers” (213). This definition refers to its main factual characteristic but does not address the purpose of the creation. According to the opinion of the previous authors, “unintentional reporting mistakes,” “satire,” “false statements by politicians,” and “reports that are slanted or misleading but not outright false” are the “cousins of fake news” (Allcott and Gentzkow 214).
However, it bears mentioning that they have rather separate objectives. Unintentional reporting mistakes and satire are not aimed at misleading readers, while the last two types of fake news cousins are likely to be produced to influence public opinion.
The definition of fake news should take into account the current situation of its popularization and the context of its distribution in social media. This paper considers fake news as news articles distributed through modern digital media that intentionally distort information to influence public opinion. This definition is based on both the strong link between fake news and social media and its factual inaccuracy and intended purpose. Nonetheless, several researchers and authors provide alternative definitions of fake news, and therefore, it is reasonable to describe possible approaches to fake news typology.
Types of Fake News
Although fake news is now generally discussed in the context of a threat to democratic values, traditionally, it has not always been used for a utilitarian political purpose. According to McNair, fake news is created for a variety of reasons, including for the sake of art or entertainment. (20). Thus, it is possible to consider the typologies of fake news that are based on its goals and content.
A research was conducted to describe how various authors define fake news. It “identified six ways that previous studies have operationalized fake news: satire, parody, fabrication, manipulation, propaganda, and advertising” (Tandoc et al. 141). News parody and satire are of less interest since they do not imply an intention to influence public opinion. At the same time, this intention is present in advertising and propaganda. The difference between these types of fake news is the interest behind them. Advertising involves the goal of influencing the opinion of customers about the product or service being promoted to increase demand for it.
Propaganda aims to acquire or retain political power and refers to news information that is created by a political actor to change public perceptions (Tandoc et al. 146). News fabrication and manipulation are related to the type of information that is subject to distortion. In the first case, it is a text article, which has no factual evidence and is presented as a real news article. Photo and video manipulations involve the distortion of visual types of information.
It should be noted that the term fake news is sometimes used to denigrate reliable news reporting. Based on that, McNair identifies two types of fake news: “(1) news that is actually faked, of fabricated, intentionally by its authors; and (2) news that a political actor disagrees with” (24). Thus, this typology reflects the possibility of using the term both for real fake news and as an instrument of unfair political struggle.
Social Media Context
Social media have undoubtedly transformed the transmission and perception of information. Researchers note that the traditional definition of news has been challenged by its digitalization, and Internet platforms have provided an opportunity for non-journalistic users to reach a public audience (Tandoc et al. 139). Social media offer both an unprecedented freedom of expression and a high risk of misinformation. The journalistic profession is eroded in such circumstances, as any user can, to some extent, act as a news observer.
In modern times, print media, as well as radio and television, are losing their popularity as news sources. Tandoc et al. state that “a survey carried out in the United States found that 44 percent of the population get their news from Facebook” (139). Moreover, the researchers cite evidence that the level of trust in fake news among people who get acquainted with it is high enough (Allcott and Gentzkow 212). This means that any interested individual can use digital media to reshape public opinion. This quality is used by both private and public persons in their interests.
One of the most significant features of fake news on the Internet is its viral distribution. It is possible to state that the concept of fake news has become a meme in itself and functions along with the same principles. According to Tandoc et al., particular “fake stories go viral precisely because they are outrageous” (138). In part, this should be agreed, because even in the past, during the times of newspapers, television, and radio, unusual and emotionally charged news became more popular. However, the specifics of social media themselves and the phenomenon of meme distribution play an important role.
Fake news spreads faster online because Internet communications are based on the principle of information sharing. Thus, it turns out that the distributors of news are not a few publications, channels, or radio stations as before, but countless users. Another important point is that social media blurs the distinction between official journalists and ordinary users, and there is no clear criterion for distinguishing between true and false information. Thus, people tend to trust unverified sources and the fake news they report.
In addition to the fact that fake news has peculiarities of distribution and perception by readers in social media, it also has a certain impact on traditional journalistic activities. Researchers note that the mainstream press is also influenced by the discussion of fake news, and journalists often have to prove the reliability of false reports and sometimes defend themselves against the corresponding accusations (Tandoc et al. 149).
The paradox of this situation is that freedom of speech, which is not censored on the Internet, is, therefore, perceived to be infringed in the mainstream press. The term fake news is often used for either unfair competition or political struggle, as previously mentioned in McNair’s typology.
However, the impact of information space digitalization on democratic processes is not limited to fake news. Due to social media, more people can become familiar with the social and political agenda, which contributes to the development of participatory culture. There have been numerous civic initiatives that were incipient, and some were entirely held in the digital world. One of the most significant illustrations of that is the #metoo movement.
#Metoo Movement
This online initiative was aimed at encouraging victims of sexual harassment to talk about what happened and, thus, protect their rights. The perpetrators were well-known producers, directors, and other men, who were able to take advantage of their position. According to McNair, the Internet has transformed the sexual culture of liberal Western societies after Harvey Weinstein was exposed for sexual harassment of his employees and partners (19). This phenomenon has demonstrated how the information field and its news can affect reality. Several high executives, who have been accused of sex-related crimes, were dismissed, expelled from specific organizations, and were also subjected to public condemnation. This raises the issue of the impact of information events on public life, including politics.
Trump Presidency
The fake news problem was especially acute during Trump’s election campaign. Allcott and Gentzkow state that fake news circulated on social media before the election “was both widely shared and heavily tilted in favor of Donald Trump” (212). Researchers also note that some authors suggested that without the influence of fake news on the electorate’s opinion, Donald Trump might not have won the 2016 elections (Allcott and Gentzkow 212).
This confirms the earlier assertion that information in social media can influence real political processes. Social media are still used by the President of the United States to discuss the political agenda. Moreover, the statements of the Head of State, including those on Twitter, also have real consequences. Stelter and Darcy claim that the “violent political rhetoric” of Donald Trump could have contributed to “CNN’s New York office and several prominent Democratic politicians” receiving “threatening deliveries” of explosive devices. Thus, the words of the politician have real-life consequences, which raises the issue of the possibility of assigning legal responsibility for the dissemination of fake news.
As the phenomenon of fake news has escalated, the profession of journalism has changed significantly. As mentioned earlier, journalists are often accused of reporting fake news and, therefore, have to justify themselves. According to McNair, news reports that criticize Trump and his political decisions are declared fake news that is not credible (24). Thus, fake news was not only used to increase the popularity of one of the candidates in the election, but it is also now used to criticize undesirable reporters.
McNair states that journalists that were declared to be “fake news media reporters were barred from White House press briefings, and live briefings were themselves curtailed” (24). Such Trump’s policies certainly have an impact on journalistic activity and the freedom of access to information.
Donald Trump’s controversial political statements, which are posted on his personal Twitter account, are also disputed. The fact is that, as a rule, announcements of politicians are perceived as part of the political agenda, as an intention to take further action, or as a political position. Thus, such announcements can be perceived as news by readers. Grynbaum and Ember state that, since election day, Trump has made some provocative proposals, including a “U-turn in American diplomatic relations with Cuba and trumpeted false claims about millions of illegal votes”. This raises the question of whether these statements can be considered newsworthy.
Given that politicians usually express their real intentions in this way, and in this case, the President’s real intentions are not always confirmed, this information can be considered as news fake. Such statements on Twitter fully fit the definition of fake news given above. Some of Trump’s proposals can be perceived as news that is distributed through modern digital media that intentionally distort information to influence public opinion. According to Grynbaum and Ember, there are calls on social media to boycott the coverage of President Trump’s statement on Twitter by the news outlets. These may be the first steps towards identifying possible responsibility for the dissemination of social media fake news that deliberately misleads readers.
Conclusion
Fake news differs from traditional news in that it does not comply with the standards of objectivity and reliability and is made to influence public opinion. Researchers have different approaches to its typology and sometimes classify it according to its purposes. Fake news has its characteristics of distribution and perception by readers in social media space. This phenomenon became particularly urgent during the election campaign and the presidency of Donald Trump. The term fake news is used not only to refer to misleading stories that spread virally but also to vilify some journalists. Nevertheless, researchers, reporters, and other members of civil society are actively analyzing and discussing the issue and considering possible approaches to solving the problem.
Works Cited
Allcott, Hunt, and Matthew Gentzkow. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 31, no. 2, 2017, pp. 211-236.
Grynbaum, Michael M., and Sydney Ember. “If Trump Tweets It, Is It News? A Quandary for the News Media.” The New York Times. 2016. Web.
McNair, Brian. “Fake News and Democratic Culture.” Digitizing Democracy, edited by Aljosha Karim Schapals, Axel Bruns and Brian McNair, Routledge, 2018, pp. 17-27.
Stelter, Brian, and Oliver Darcy. “Trump’s Attacks on Media have Real-life Consequences.” CNN Business. 2018. Web.
Tandoc Jr, Edson C., et al. “Defining ‘Fake News’ A Typology of Scholarly Definitions.” Digital Journalism, vol. 6, no. 2, 2018, pp. 137-153.