Jewish Revolt Under Roman Rule Report (Assessment)

Introduction

Jewish revolt during the rule of the Caesars is a very important topic for different groups of people. It is important first to the Jews for they are in the center of discussion. After all this study is about their history starting from the first century CE going to the Jewish Diaspora of later centuries. On the other hand this subject matter is also important to the Christians especially those who made the argument that they received a better covenant and that the old covenant that Jews desperately tried to honor had been superseded with the new one. This topic is also important for historians focusing on ancient Rome and also for those who find it important to study Western Civilization. It will be pointed out later that the outcome of the Jewish resistance was a major factor in the evolution of the Roman Empire and consequently the Western World. In order to narrow the focus of this study, the question that should be answered is whether the Jewish revolt against the Roman Empire was religious or politically motivated? This query can be answered by looking into the two major revolts, the first one culminating in the fall of Masada and the second one, made distinct by a charismatic leader named Simon Bar Kokhba.

Background

It would be impossible to understand the Jewish revolt against their Roman overlords without first understanding the history of the Jewish people as well as the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, first in Italy, then in the Mediterranean and finally in Palestine and the rest of the known world at that time. Starting with the Jewish people, the bulk of the information can be seen in sacred writings cherished by both Jews and Christians alike – the Old Testament portion of the Christian Bible. Through the said sacred writings, Jews, Christians, and those who are interested in the study of ancient religions became acquainted with the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob – who later became Israel, the father of the twelve tribes that will comprise a nation of the same name. This nation grew in number and became strong while they were still slaves in Egypt. According to the Bible the descendants of Abraham were given the command by their LORD that they ought to leave Egypt and establish a nation guided by the idea of monotheism, abhorrence of graven images and a strict code which Jews will be known for in ages to come.¹

There is a need to emphasize an important characteristic of the Jews. They can be both religiously and fanatical depending on the person’s point of view. But irregardless of what people say it can be said that Jews try their very best to follow the will of their LORD as well as the various commandments that their God has given them. In this regard it is important to mention Moses, the one who liberated them from the Egyptians and brought them to where they are now, in the same location where they re-established themselves after centuries of Jewish Diaspora. After World War II the Jews were brought back to their homeland and no matter what will happen to international politics they will do their best to defend Israel and they will not hesitate to offer their lives for their religious and political freedom. This is significant because before the rise of the Roman Empire, Jews were exiled as seen in their sacred writings, especially in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Daniel.

Now that they have returned to Jerusalem, they yearn to continue their way of life, especially when it comes to serving their God, their Temple and the observance of religious laws, rituals, and various ceremonies.² In spite of the Roman Empire’s desire to reduce conflict in Palestine and by the perseverance of Roman representatives to improve relations with Jews, there were still two major revolts that had to be put down using brutal force.³ The question remains, as to the root cause of Jewish revolt, is it due to religion or politics?

The First Revolt

The religious and political climate in Palestine under Roman rule can be partially understood by studying the Christian Bible, the writings of Josephus and other ancient historians who took time in understanding the complex nature of Jewish-Roman interaction.⁴ From the Christian Bible the most important piece of information concerns the uneasy relationship between the Jewish religious leaders and the representatives of Roman rule. It is easy to understand the necessity of proxy leadership because Rome is a considerable distance away from Jerusalem. But there is a need to understand why Jewish religious leaders were given a free hand in dealing with the affairs of the Jewish people and how this affected the rebellion in the latter part of the 1^st century CE and the second one in the earlier part of the 2^nd century CE.

During the time of Christ the Jews were already used to the fact that Caesar’s rule is part of daily life. This is because for many decades they experienced Roman conquest and reconquest.⁵ During this period the Jews learned first hand, “…the severe Roman practices of scorched-earth slaughter and devastation…”⁶ This kind of treatment forced some to flee and others to resist. But in Biblical times it seems that the religious leaders find it more beneficial to adapt to the Roman system. The Jewish religious leaders were attracted to this strategy partly because the Romans were wise enough to realize that violence could not be the main tool to build great empires. Great rulers come and go but the best way to preserve an empire is establish peace and prosperity throughout the colonies.

Caesar Augustus was one of the wise Roman emperors who knew how to use diplomacy and the sword. In his famous edict in 1 BCE he made sure that the Jewish people – especially their leaders – that he is so grateful for their support and so he declared:

Since the nation of the Jews and Hyrcanus, their high priest, have been found grateful to the people of the Romans, not only in the present but also in the past, and particularly in the time of my father, Caesar, imperator, it seems good tome and to my advisory council, according to the oaths, by the will of the people of the Romans, that the Jews shall use their own customs in accordance with their ancestral law, just as they used to use them in the time of Hyrcanus, the high priest of their highest god…⁷

The implications of this edict are important for the Jews of that time as well as historians who try to understand the real motive for the revolt. This edict strengthens the argument that the revolt was not due to religious reasons but due in large part to politics. On the other hand, in spite of the edict of Caesar Augustus, there are many Jews who believe that they should not be oppressed by any foreign power. Moreover, for the Jews it is hard to separate religion and politics as well as other aspects of daily living to that of religious duties.⁸ Even if there is an incentive to compromise it will only take a group of zealots to provoke the people and persuade them to see their religious leaders as corrupt and if they really wanted to follow Judaism in its pure form then it is time to rebel against the Romans.

There are many historians who will support the claim that the core leadership of the First Revolt was made up of zealots.⁹ Aside from the religious fanaticism of some it cannot be denied that the need to impose taxes on the Jewish population is also a major factor that led to the revolt. Religious piety is the most believable explanation as to why the Jewish people considered the idea an uprising. From the point of view of Rome it would be a waste of time, money and effort to provoke them to war. But they rebelled against Rome and it became a raging inferno that was difficult to stop.

The idea that zealots were leaders of the First Revolt was strengthened by archaeological findings, especially those that were linked to the Fall of Masada. Masada was a fortress-like structure that was used by Jews to hold-off their oppressors. But at the end of the day the Roman legionnaires were too much for them and they have to surrender.¹⁰

In order to understand how zealots value Judaism and its set of rules, an excavation made by anthropologists revealed that the zealots who live and work in the Masada were so religious that they constructed their own synagogue within the fortress.¹¹ The most important piece of evidence that the rebels were zealous for their cause is the fact that before the Roman soldier can overwhelmingly capture, Masada, all the Jewish rebels committed suicide.¹²

The Second Revolt

The Second Revolt is more complicated than the first one. In fact, there is no consensus whether this event was politically or religiously motivated. But before going any further it is important to understand why it is important to find out the cause of the revolt. First of all, it has to be made clear that the rebellion led by Simon Bar Kokhba is unexpected because there was this idea that the Jews were finished after the fall of Masada and the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE.

There are some Christians who believe that Jews were supposed to be punished by their refusal to accept Jesus as the Messiah and therefore the destruction of their Temple is a big blow to Judaism and they were not expected to recover from such setbacks. The second revolt is also the testament to the resiliency of the Jewish people. On the other hand this latest act of rebellion coming from the colonies in Palestine is not good news for the Roman Empire. If this rebellion is not put down soon and with efficiency, then the other colonies of the Empire may be encouraged to start their own form of resistance.

It is therefore crucial to establish that Simon Bar Kokhba is not a fictional character and that there is enough evidence to support the claim that a rebellion of this magnitude did occur in the 2^nd century CE. While historical documents are very valuable sources of information, in this case it is archaeology that provided undisputable evidence that indeed the Jews were able to mount a second major attempt to overthrow Roman rule. In the excavation conducted in the area where Simon Bar Kokhba was supposed to have established his base operations, there were numerous artifacts showing that a Bar Kokhba was able to set up a community that is geared towards freeing Jerusalem from the clutches of Rome.¹³

While there was a significant number of artifacts and numerous documents that sheds light on the Second Revolt, there is not enough evidence to help historians confirm the cause for the revolt. Josephus, the prolific writer and chronicler did not write extensively enough to show details of the reason for starting an armed resistance with the Romans.¹⁴ The Jewish Talmud on the other hand is a wealth of information regarding the defeat of Bar Kokhba but silent when it comes to the events leading to the revolt.

It is tempting to jump into conclusions and say that the root cause of the revolt is religious. While this is a good proposition it seems that the events in the 1^st century can easily cast doubt on this theory. First of all, the center of Jewish religious ceremony was destroyed decades before the incident. Secondly, the Romans are known for their tolerance for other people’s religious beliefs. It was even believed that the Emperor was benevolent to the Jews.¹⁵ While this is true it is not correct to underestimate the religious fervor of the Jews and if there is a law or representative authority that will persecute them on the basis of religion then it would not be difficult to understand why Jews would rally around a charismatic leader like Bar Kokhba.

Based on the description of ancient writers both Jews and Christians, it was found out that Bar Kokhba was described as a thief, a scoundrel, as well as a freedom fighter.¹⁶ This led many to believe that the rebellion is due to political unrest and the desire of many to break free from the oppressive rule of the Romans and not because they are forbidden to practice their religion. The investigation should have ended here but it was discovered that in the early phase of the revolt many supported Bar Kokhba and this includes the religious leaders.

The ambivalent attitude towards Bar Kokhba can be explained by his early success and devastating defeat at the end. The support of the religious leaders, supporting the idea of early success was made clearer by newly discovered evidence that Bar Kokhba was able to defeat a significant portion of the Roman forces sent to defeat him.¹⁷ As a result Bar Kokhba was elevated to hero status and his name meant that he is “Son of the Star”, this is not an idle boast on the part of Kokhba, by changing his name to that “Son of the Star” and “Prince of Israel” means that Kokhba wanted to be Messiah for his people. And interestingly the religious leaders were at one point in agreement with Kokhba.

But the forces of the Roman Empire easily overwhelmed Bar Kokhba and so the last remnant of Jewish rebellion under Roman rule was effectively extinguished. At this point religious leaders began to argue that Bar Kokhba could not be Messiah because he did not fulfill some of the basic requirements such as the fact that he is not of Davidic origin.¹⁸ This is also the time when the Jewish religious began to distance themselves away from Bar Kokhba.

Aside from the link between the rebellion and the religious leaders of the day, another support for the claim that the Second Revolt is of religious motivation is explained by the fact that Emperor Hadrian wanted to transform Jerusalem into a pagan city as well as the banning of circumcision.¹⁹ For those who truly understand Jewish law and customs Hadrian is asking something that a Jew could not give. Thus, explains the rebellion.

Conclusion

It would be impossible to even speculate that the two Jewish revolts were not motivated by religion. As mentioned earlier, it is impossible to separate religion from Jewish life. But on the other hand there is evidence that casts doubt on the simplistic explanation, blaming religion as the main reason for the revolt. In this case, it must be added that politics and other social issues are another factor that contributed to the rebellion against the Roman Empire. This is especially true when it comes to the rebellion led by Bar Kokhba. There is a reason why Jewish religious leaders supported him in the beginning only to blame him as the scapegoat at the end. Religion and politics are one and the same in ancient Jerusalem and therefore the rebellion initiated by the leaders has something to do with their beliefs and their desire to rule the land unhindered by any foreign power.

Works Cited

1. Benjamin, Isaac. The Near East Under Roman Rule. New York: Brill, 1998.
2. Bowersock, G.W. The Babatha papyri, Masada, and Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 1991: 336-344. Print.
3. Dio, Cassius. Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX. 2009.
4. Josephus, Flavius. The Works of Flavius Josephus. Trans. W. Whiston. 2009. Web.
5. Josephus, Flavius. Josephus Describes the Roman’s Sack of Jerusalem. 2009.
6. Horsley, Richard. “Power vacuum and power struggle in 66-7 C.E.” The First Jewish Revolt. Ed. Andre Berlin & J. Andrew Overman. New York: Routledge, 2002.
7. May, Paul. Roman Sources on the Jews and Judaism, 1 BCE-110 CE. 2009. Web.
8. Naveh, Joseph. Masada: The Yigael Yadin Excavations, 1963-1965. The Yigael Yadin Memorial Fund: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
9. Opper, Thorsten. Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
10. Skarsaune, Oskar. In the Shadow of the Temple. IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002.
11. Yadin, Yigael. Masada: Herod’s Fortress and the Zealot’s Last Stand. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.

Footnotes

1. Paul May. Roman Sources on the Jews and Judaism, 1 BCE-110 CE. 2009.
2. Flavius Josephus. The Works of Flavius Josephus. Trans. W. Whiston. 2009
3. Cassius Dio. Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX. 2009
4. Richard Horsley. “Power vacuum and power struggle in 66-7 C.E.” The First Jewish Revolt. Ed. Andre Berlin & J. Andrew Overman. (New York: Routledge, 2002), 87.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Paul May. Roman Sources on the Jews and Judaism, 1 BCE-110 CE. 2009
8. Horsley, p. 89.
9. Joseph Naveh. Masada: The Yigael Yadin Excavations, 1963-1965. (The Yigael Yadin Memorial Fund: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem), 4.
10. Flavius Josephus. Josephus Describes the Roman’s Sack of Jerusalem. 2009
11. Yigael Yadin. Masada: Herod’s Fortress and the Zealot’s Last Stand. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson., par. 8.
12. Yigael Yadin. Masada: Herod’s Fortress and the Zealot’s Last Stand. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, p. 189.
13. G.W. Bowersock. The Babatha papyri, Masada, and Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 1991: pp. 337.
14. Isaac Benjamin. The Near East Under Roman Rule. (New York: Brill, 1998), p. 220.
15. Ibid, 223.
16. Ibid.
17. Thorsten Opper. Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. (MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 89.
18. Oskar Skarsaune. In the Shadow of the Temple. (IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), p. 202.
19. Isaac Benjamin. The Near East Under Roman Rule. (New York: Brill, 1998), p. 237.