Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation Presentation

Exclusively available on IvyPanda Available only on IvyPanda

Abstract

  • Infectious disease public health exposure may be associated with flush-related aerosols;
  • New appropriate and effective methodology should be established to evaluate flush-related aerosol generation;
  • A new experimental apparatus was tested;
  • The results confirmed that toilet flushing did increase airborne particle concentrations in the bathroom air.

Abstract

We will write a custom essay on your topic a custom Presentation on Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation
808 writers online

Introduction

  • Aerosolized pathogenic microorganisms can be responsible for human respiratory infections.
  • Gastroenteritis and norovirus remain the most common aerosolized microorganisms in toilets (Nazaroff, 2011).
  • Different methods of research were implemented (Johnson & Lynch, 2008; Johnson et al., 2013).
  • Earlier technical challenges justify the need to develop approaches and methods for measuring flush-related bioaerosol generation.

Introduction

Purpose

The purpose was to develop and test an apparatus and method for measuring aerosol generation related to toilet flushing.

Rationale:

  • Questionable validity of earlier findings;
  • Bioaerosol transmission leading to disease outbreaks (Johnson et al., 2013);
  • The need to reduce the scope of infectious diseases;
  • The need to develop new guidelines for preventing airborne infectious diseases.

Purpose

Literature Review: Aerosol Generation

  • Aerosol generation and release have long been a matter of public health concerns (Sanchez-Monedero, Stentiford & Urpilainen, 2005).
  • Any public toilet increases the risks of airborne infections.
  • The direction of bioaerosolization depends on the physical principles of speed and transport.
  • The current methods fail to control the dynamics of virus-laden bioaerosols (Morawska, 2005).

Literature Review: Aerosol Generation

Literature Review: Why Important

  • The problem of bioaerosol generation is quite serious.
  • Sewage-related bioaerosols can be potentially responsible for SARS.
  • Toilet flushing generates major and minor droplets carrying a variety of microorganisms (Johnson et al., 2013).
  • Bioaerosolization of toilet flushing cannot be confirmed without effective analytical methods.

Literature Review: Why Important

1 hour!
The minimum time our certified writers need to deliver a 100% original paper

Literature Review: Sources of Aerosolized Microorganisms in Toilets

  • Toilet flushing is a source and driver of aerosolized microorganisms (Leed, 2011).
  • Contact transmission is a result of contamination with flush droplets (Johnson et al., 2012).
  • Toilet flushing is a source of E. coli (Gerba et al., 1975), as well as gastroenteritis, Clostridium difficile, and S. Epidermidis (Best et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2012; Nazaroff, 2011).

Literature Review: Sources of Aerosolized Microorganisms in Toilets

Toilet Flushes and Aerosol Generation: Review of Methods

Wallis et al. (1985)

  • The researchers detected human enteric viruses from aerosols by using filterite filters and glycine buffer;
  • Even with the air flowing at 100 liters per minute, no virus passed the filter.

Johnson and Lynch (2008)

  • The researchers tested an analytical method for counting particles;
  • The method proved to be effective enough to measure the number of surrogate bioaerosol particles.

Toilet Flushes and Aerosol Generation: Review of Methods

Methods and Materials: Variables

  • Purpose: To develop and test an apparatus and method for measuring aerosol generation associated with toilet flushing.
  • Independent variable: toilet flush.
  • Dependent variable: particles concentration.

Methods and Materials: Variables

Instrumentation

  • Clear cylindrical 4-feet tall, 18-inches high wide plastic chamber.
  • HEPA filtration system.
  • Holmes ®True | HEPA Allergen Remover.
  • Model 3321 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer® Spectrometer.
  • Renegair® pump.

Instrumentation

Setting

The experiment was conducted in two half and one full residential standard bathrooms.

Both bathrooms were equipped with 1.6 GPF (6.0 LPF) toilets.

Setting

Remember! This is just a sample
You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers

Procedure

Divided into two stages;

  • The first was used to confirm that toilet flushing leads to aerosol generation;
  • The second was used to test the efficacy of the proposed method for measuring bioaerosolization in toilets.
  • Basic Lysol cleaner was used to reduce background particles.
  • The chamber was 4 feet tall and 18 inches wide;
  • HEPA air intake filters were on all sides;
  • The HEPA exhaust/vacuum filter was located on the top of the chamber;
  • The sampling port was connected to the APS monitor with the help of a tube (1 inch in diameter, 40 inches long).

ProcedureProcedure

Experiment

  • Bathrooms were sealed with duck tapes;
  • Holmes® Allergen Remover was switched to run 30 minutes before toilet flushing;
  • Three toilet flushes were initiated with a one-minute interval;
  • TSI Aerodynamic Particle Sizer 3321 was used to measure aerosol generation after each flush.

Experiment

Experiment: Graphics

Experiment: GraphicsExperiment: Graphics

Procedure, Sample, and Toilet Seeding

  • The Regenerative Pump was used to filter the air out of the chamber;
  • Medium duty white caulk gum was used as a gasket between the toilet bowl rim and the chamber;
  • Samples were collected every minute, during 1 hour (60 minutes);
  • Toilet seeding was used to imitate human excretion.

Procedure, Sample, and Toilet Seeding

Clear Cylindrical Air-Tight Chamber

Clear Cylindrical Air-Tight Chamber

Data Analysis

  • Statistical analyses;
  • Basic Excel and STATA;
  • Two sample t-tests, unequal variances, and mean differences between total counts;
  • Individual particle sizes.

Data Analysis

Results

Experiment 1, Toilet 1

  • Flushing generates aerosols;
  • 133.4 particles/cm3, SD 72.2 with flushing against 42.9 particles/cm3, SD 7.8 without flushing.

Experiment 2, Toilet 1

  • seeded with 0.05 µm polystyrene beads;
  • flushing leads to an increase in particle counts;
  • 177.9 particles/cm3, SD 162.3 with flushing against 50.1 particles/cm3, SD 14.9 without flushing.

Experiment 3, Toilet 1

  • Results are similar to Experiment 1 without seeding;
  • Individual particle counts are lower than in Experiment 1;
  • Patterns of changes are similar to Experiment 1.

Experiment 4, Toilet 2

  • Different bathroom;
  • No seeding;
  • Flushing generated aerosols;
  • 107.6 particles/cm3 with flushing against 30.1 particles/cm3 without it.

ResultsResults

We will write
a custom essay
specifically for you
Get your first paper with
15% OFF

Discussion

  • The results confirm those of Johnson et al. (2013);
  • It is the first study to use a TSI Aerodynamic Particle Sizer for changes in particle counts;
  • All four experiments confirm that toilet flushing leads to an increase in particle counts;
  • Changes in particle counts are related to their size.

Discussion

Limitations and Recommendations

Limitations

  • The experiments were conducted in household toilets;
  • The air pumped in and out of the chamber could contribute to changes in aerosolized particle counts;
  • Polystyrene beads were used to imitate seeding.

Recommendations

  • Future studies are needed to understand the relationship between particle counts and size.

Limitations and Recommendations

References

Best, E.L., Sandoe, J.A.T. & Wilcox, M.H. (2012). Potential for aerosolization of Clostridium difficile after flushing toilets: The role of toilet lids in reducing environmental contamination risks. Journal of Hospital Infection, 80(1), 1-5.

Gerba, C.P., Wallis, C. & Melnick, J.L. (1975). Microbiological hazards of household toilets: Droplet production and the fate of residual organisms. Applied Microbiology, 30(2), 229-237.

Johnson, D.L. & Lynch, R.A. (2008). An efficient analytical method for particle counting in evaluating airborne infectious isolation containment using fluorescent microspheres. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 5(4), 271-277.

Johnson, D.L., Mead, K.R., Lynch, R.A. & Hirst, D.V. (2013). Lifting the lid on toilet plume aerosol: A literature review with suggestions for future research. American Journal of Infection Control, 41(3), 254-258.

Johnson, D., Lynch, R., Marshall, C., Mead, K. & Hirst, D. (2013). Aerosol generation by modern flush toilets. Aerosol Science and Technology, 47(9), 1047-1057.

Leed, S.W. (2011). Solving indoor airborne disease transmission problems. Engineered Systems, 56-61. Web.

Morawska, L. Droplet fate in indoor environments, or can we prevent the spread of infection?, in Yang,X., Zhao, B.,& Zhao, R. (Eds.) Proceedings of Indoor Air 2005 : the 10th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Springer, Beijing, China, pp. 9-23.

Nazaroff, W.W. (2011). Norovirus, gastroenteritis, and indoor environmental quality. Indoor Air, 21(5), 353-356.

Sanchez-Monedero, M.A., Stentiford, E.I. & Urpilainen, S.T. (2005). Bioaerosol generation at large-scale green waste composting plants. Journal of Air & Waste Management, 55(5), 612-618.

Wallis, C., Melnick, J.L., Rao, V.C. & Sox, T.E. (1985). Method for detecting viruses in aerosols. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 50(5), 1181-1186.

Print
Need an custom research paper on Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation written from scratch by a professional specifically for you?
808 writers online
Cite This paper
Select a referencing style:

Reference

IvyPanda. (2022, July 27). Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation. https://ivypanda.com/essays/methods-development-for-toilet-to-evaluate-aerosol-generation/

Work Cited

"Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation." IvyPanda, 27 July 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/methods-development-for-toilet-to-evaluate-aerosol-generation/.

References

IvyPanda. (2022) 'Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation'. 27 July.

References

IvyPanda. 2022. "Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation." July 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/methods-development-for-toilet-to-evaluate-aerosol-generation/.

1. IvyPanda. "Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation." July 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/methods-development-for-toilet-to-evaluate-aerosol-generation/.


Bibliography


IvyPanda. "Methods Development for Toilet to Evaluate Aerosol Generation." July 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/methods-development-for-toilet-to-evaluate-aerosol-generation/.

Powered by CiteTotal, free referencing maker
If you are the copyright owner of this paper and no longer wish to have your work published on IvyPanda. Request the removal
More related papers
Cite
Print
1 / 1