Introduction
This paper answers to questions based on readings on modern day enslavement. Ten questions are answered in the three major parts of this paper. The first part, is a bout early forms of colonialism and how it changed the way of live, it looks into the meaning of micro-level form of slavery and expounds on micro-level debt of peonage.
Further, the first part concisely articulates how contemporary debt peonage has been coined into racial form of slavery and it explains how unfree and free labor is interlinked politically. The second part of the paper explores the meaning of space of flow as used in selected book. Moreover, the paper in the second part, further explains why space of places constitute a challenge to a basic lever of the new power system.
The third part of this paper looks into what the author meant when he used the word self-programmable labor and generic labor. It also explains what is meant by individualization of labor and a personal implication about the impact of a new economy has in movements and trade unions. Finally a conclusion sums it all.
Slave trade and slavery was a major form of revolution that sprang across the globe some centuries ago. This was a phenomenon that was influenced by shortage of labor in the western world to work in various sectors of their economy (Winant 181). Massive form of human labor was urgently needed at this time to increase production.
Slaves were sought after to work in industries and agricultural plantations because they provided cheap form of labor and decreased production costs (Winant 185). This was a major practice exercised by the world’s most exploitative nations who wanted to conquer the world.
New Type of Enslavement
Despite this form of enslavement being abolished, slavery has taken a different tune in our modern society; Micro – level kind of slavery has emerged. A bureaucratic nation has embraced this form of enslavement to perpetrate their vice (Winant 192).
Due to abolition of slavery, there has been scarce and shortage of cheap labour in their agricultural and industrial sectors and hence micro- level slavery. In this form of slavery, the peasants and poor people are subjected to peonage; immigrants have been taken advantage of in big cities around the world (Winant 193). This new form of slavery is most practiced when work to be done needs less skills or no skills at all.
The mass of poor immigrants especially from rural areas have been put under subjection of their masters because of their large immigration numbers and scarcity of salaried jobs to be done. The Immigrants are subjected to exploitation and sub employment is a major phenomenon not only in the developed countries but also commonly witnessed in developing countries. The informal sector has adversely been affected by micro level slavery (Winant 193).
What Winant means by Micro- level form of Debt Peonage
Massive forms of exploitation, over time, affected some nations adversely. The super rich nations plundered the economies of the developing nations by taking what they needed most e.g. minerals, labor, agricultural products. Apart from exploitation of natural resources to exhaustion, they affected locals psychologically; leaving them torn asunder.
Due to imbalanced distribution of resources, developing nations turned to developed nations for loans. Consequently, the developed nations have kept other nations under debt of peonage despite taking all the resources from them (Winant 197). Modern debt peonage exercised by world super rich economies has emerged as a stumbling block for most struggling economies and especially the third countries: their territories of their peonage during the colonial rule (Winant 199).
They have taken no interest to share what they once took because they heavily benefited form the third world economies to stabilize their own. Contrarily, they have made the developing nations to pay much wealthy, more times than the expected compensations. This is evidently seen in how they are handling International indebtedness, so they regard this as paying back because of the abolition of slavery.
Contemporary Debt Peonage: a Racialized Form of Slavery
Many poor countries have been forced to pay the super rich countries double or even triple the amount they borrowed from rich nations (Winant 202). The debt payment sometimes is increased compared to the original debt to be repaid, and when paid there is more money paid in form of interest.
But for them, they are never confronted to repay for example Germany when it was defeated in the WWII (Winant 188). They decide who to get more finance and there terms of repayment. This has made many nations especially from developing world to associate this to racial slavery because of the way the aid is administered basing on the nations capability and association to the west (Winant 196).
Financial systems have been used to further create a huge line between the poor nations and the super rich. After exploitation and exhausting their resources, and human force to work in their corporate plantation, they have come up with another strategy of exploiting their financial systems (Winant 206). They introduce another form of subjection of selling their agricultural goods of which the poor nations have planted by themselves.
They want to sell weapons acquired by their corrupt governments to developed nations that they can fight their neighbor or other ethnicity. International lending organizations like IMF have imposed strict lending policies in its reimbursement to poor nations, it’s not only through debts but they have crippled other ways of development which would have been a major boost to struggling economies (Winant 220).
There is restriction in immigration, education systems are not getting better, social programs to help poor nations are no where Aids medicines are untraceable, and there is no incentive for foreign and domestic investors; a situation, which leaves poor nations to suffer financially (Winant 223).
Need to End Split between “Free” and “Un-free” Labor
We need a system which can balance a gap between the super rich nations and the developing world so that this form of micro – level slavery can end in the world. A space to fully maximize and create equality uniformity has to be sustained (Winant 189). Forced labor created unfree kind of labor because labor was easily available but since the abolition of slave trade more changes has been evolved to have an alternative for the developed nations for there sectors of economies.
Renting of labor and having some in form of peonage has been widely explored and is on the rise, this has been seen has a source of inducement to those enslaved and to make them happy and work harder, but in the really sense, the slave didn’t realize he was selling his time and skills and owing to the fact that he was doing a peonage job (Winant 228). It was widely used this way for the worker to feel happy that he was free and was enjoying freedom but it wasn’t the case. This was industrial capitalism in developed countries.
The issue is nations rely on free or unfree labor. There was a fight in recognition and distinction, there were free workers who supplied major big cities raw materials like Cotton and sugar among others so they were regarded as free because they could not be tied down under close monitoring (Winant 224).
After the abolition of slavery free workers have made attempts to remain visible and get recognition from their unfree counterparts, of which freedom to unfree is explicit even though it’s not long lived. This has been a result of racism which is evident here.
The emergence of world trade bodies like WTO and NAFTA has yet to narrow down the gap between the developed and the developing world by elaborately having systems in place to check exploitation and dominion over the balance of trade between world nations (Winant 234). It’s seen to counter the bureaucracy that was established during slavery and transform it to the world of today by fostering unity between world countries. This will create a politically harmonious world between world nations
Space of Flows
The space of flow can be defined as material or organization of time which shares a social precise and its working is centered through flows (Castells, “the Power of Identity”167). Flows have various sequences which are recurrent and repetitive in nature and there are interactions among the flows which are physically scattered over a wide area or in a political structure in the society (Castells, “the Power of Identity”168).
The arrangements sometimes can be institutionally base or in major organizations, but whose inner systems has a central role in defining the social and consciousness of the society as a whole. There exist different types of flow in the society (Castells, “the Power of Identity”178). Information flow is made up of constituted electronic circuits i.e. telecommunication, broadcasting systems and others which facilitate communication. In this flow, it’s physically tangible and hence they play an important role in the world network society.
Its partial and it happens within our selves, it makes it possible for the society to interact and communicate by using enhanced information technology hardware (Castells, “the Power of Identity”189). Because it’s physically connected, place does not exist because the positions occurs by the exchange that is within the network. It’s in this that communication is fundamental configuration although the space remains the logic flow within.
The network only facilitates efficient information transfer (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 283). space of flow is made up of nodes and hubs; these nodes play special roles because they link a distant station to one another, the hub and node link sparsely distributed networks relaying information to a central point in the society (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 245). The linked places are with constituted and well defined as social or physical functions.
Space has an important aspect in the society rather than defining the immediate surrounding, it enhances the influence of the social settings to the immediate situation (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 218). In major cities around the world, space has been transformed in a variety of ways for the society to fit regardless of the status they befall. The elites and the cosmopolitans and how they project their influence among the poor and the immigrants in big cities have been redefined by space.
The space of Power has been adversely been affected the way people and nations relate and has been the struggle of the elite to accumulate more through many forms (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 286). and this has been the persistence of the elites to search and accumulate more wealthy for their sustainability Power and Wealthy doesn’t make a life, People’s life has been known to be deeply rooted in places, the culture they come or inherited and in the history they have used to since they were born (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 389). All this has shaped the space in which we live and defined our place in the society.
The society exists with different types of classes in the society and one class cannot manage to have social flow by its own. For the need of cohesion preservation and further enhancing flow, they need to have a guiding principals and rules to have a clear boundary of both their social and political community (Castells, “The network society” 189).
When the society democratizes its flow then the elites become distinguishable from the rest of the society and the whole population. This allows curtailing political infiltration and representation in a centered globe of strategic decision making (Castells, “The network society”190). The elites have a luxury form of executing nodes flows, they does it in serene and expensive leisure spaces or residential while emulating a social settings.
A place is a setting whose form, function and meaning are self contained within the scope of physical continuity (Castells, “The network society” 239). Places have contributed to development and strengthening of communities.
Although this has been tremendous for the society growth but the lifestyle of the inhabitants has been unpredictable because of the judgment approach that comes with it. Some places have been known to preserve the rich cultural experience creating beauty this sometimes qualifies them as unique places with a different flow (Castells, “the Power of Identity”240).
Immigrants shaped and brought renewal in urban centers where they had gone to search for better life (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 150). For those were welcomed and given shelter by already established. This altered and reconditioned the aspect of urban renewal in most cities in some parts of the world.
For over years the cities have grown and has developed into Place of places because of architectural designs (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 167). This has been a result of urban renewal waves which swept across these cities by flows and immigrations (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 189). A new way of life which is harmonious has been created.
This has in turn influenced the establishments of new power systems coiled around this big urban city. And great physical outlook has been rediscovered and redesigned. Nevertheless, of being superb and rich culture, a number of them have enjoyed economical support from their own nation because of the power they posses (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 194). But the new modernization has brought a new harmonic and coexistence between societies this has dispelled fears and tension between many communities around the world.
There has been intermingling of class and a social cohesion. Middle class and the poor immigrants lives together in major neighbourhoods fostering urban vitality and they have a created a culture of survival while preserving the aspects of their culture and their past histories about the urban life (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 199). Both have interacted with space and hence finding its real meaning in flows.
Space of Places
Space of Places refers to social forms of time that is not reducible to what have been perceptions to date (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 181). This has been based on the abstract of social and technical which existed and have been challenged by modern historical happenings.
Time has shaped and influenced space since immemorial and this in contradictory has influenced how the time and space has been organized in the society. Space of flow has impacted its influence in already existing information’s systems that already exists and are operable (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 207).
The information in the global economy has been well laid with efficient control monitors to enable innovation and coordination of interlinked firms’ i.e. in finance, insurance firms, and many other companies which depend on information highway. The modern economies of these companies rely to knowledgeably generated information and its flow (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 210). They have well organized and reliable telecommunication infrastructures which make it easier to reach their nodes around the globe.
Part two: Question 3: space of places a challenge to lever in New power System
Most reliable sources have indicated that there is a pattern of dispersion of organizations around the world. This has been attribute to the fact of searching new markets and expanding their grasp in every sphere of the globe, they does this to increase there Financial aspect whereas opening job opportunities for many other people in big cities (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 215). This further has attracted huge investments not only in the intended sectors but other developments have come along with their involvements in this big urban city (Stalder 29). some of this companies have been biased the way they organized and set up their investment, they skip investing in marginalized or developing cities and concentrate in investing in more Large cities of developed world (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 234). They concentrate in this city because of their higher functionality of power and availability of skilled manpower, e.g. New York is regarded as a centre of most international Finance (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 238).
The global integration has revolutionarised major roles of this cities around the world their traditional roles have been modernized. And creation of new power systems established.
These centers act as spheres of authority to the world economies and control a number of vital firms around the globe (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 240). They do also serve as innovation command centers where new products are produced. In addition they benefit from the already telecommunication and air transport that’s already efficient and well coordinate (Castells, “the Power of Identity” 245).
They do this so that they can remain at competitive edge and strengthen their grip in their approach in investment. When they are financially sound they proceed and set up more real estate businesses in order to plough back what they have got over the times. Smaller world economies have been subjected to these new centers of power in how they formulate their policies and working guidelines (Castells, “the Power of Identity”248).
Self Programmable Labor
Self programmable labor describes the growing labor force that is the reduction of the proportion of the labor force (Castells, “The network society” 200). This is characterized with long tenure employment and promising career path.
When new employees are hired for their flexibility they replace the old labor force entitled to job security in large scale firms. In generic labor, the definition is slightly different (Castells, “The network society”201). It’s where a parallel growth of highly educated occupations and low skill jobs with very different bargaining power in the labor market.
Individualization of Labor
As new economies grow and expand each single day and competition is witnessed every day with a general emphasis on increased productivity, labor individualization becomes a necessity. Individualized labor has been created where by most professional have shifted their skills to match the new trend that is taking place in the corporate world (Castells, “The network society” 209).
Most professionals have individualized there form of professionalism where there is more focus on in flexibility and look for more bargaining power to enhance there expertise. They have defined as clear path for there educational needs to target particular career path and opt for jobs which offers security and promotes there welfare (Castells, “The network society” 215).
Impact of Individualization of labor on Trade Unions
The transformation that has shaped the world economy and how business tend to cope up has had effects on major trade unions and movements a cross the world (Smith 16). In industrials sectors, the trade unions and movements have to adapt timely to recessions and embrace structural approach to its changes. Trade unions have been transformed in more developed countries to contribute and enhance the success and development of free and fair structures (Smith 18).
This has been in form of creating peaceful and democratic nations, establishing markets and ensuring healthy competitions and helping to reduce the negative effects of debts being levied to most third world countries (Smith 24). New formulations and developments to create a just and fair trade between countries have been strengthened through unity. Trade barriers and restrictions have been lowered to facilitate trade balance between countries.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the enslavement of the human population across the world had some positive and negative advantages all together. For instance, economies of the super rich countries, in western world, thrived agriculturally and industrially because of cheap labor and raw materials from the third world countries. Most of the nations where this happened, especially the third world countries, remained very poor. Furthermore, the human populations which were forced into the slavery were psychologically affected.
After its abolishment, there arises a different form of enslavement peonage. Subtly racism continues to be exercised. A good indicator of the same is in the way the wealthy nations treat developing countries with an air of superiority not just economically but intellectually and racially.
Wealthy nations contribute their share to international aids agency and financial institutions like IMF but also control them in every way. Through the established international institutions offer aid and loans but with stringed rules that make recipient countries mere puppets in the whole scheme undermining national sovereignty.
Well the space of flow has allowed and shaped many aspects of many businesses in the societies. The revolution in the space flow has been occasioned by changes in communication around the world towards what is referred to as the information age.
The information age is characterized by improved communication strategy that ensures information transfer around the globe in micro seconds. This has led to the establishment of networks which has enabled closer interlinking of associated societies and developed new social dimensions in today’s world.
Work Cited
Castells, Manuel. The network society: a cross-cultural perspective. Northampton: Edward Elgar Pub, 2004.
Castells, Manuel. The Power of Identity: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture: New Jersey; John Wiley and Sons, 2009.
Smith, M. K. Rhona. Textbook on International Human Rights. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Stalder, Felix. Manuel Castells: the theory of the network society. Cambridge: Polity, 2006.
Winant, Howard. The New Politics of Race: Globalism, Difference, Justice. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.