Introduction
Anthropology is the study that involves holistic comparison of human beings. It analyses the interactions of human beings with the environment. It originates from humanities and natural sciences. Anthropology questions about the behavior of different people, their origin and their physical traits. Great figures of anthropology includes; Marvin Harris, Jared Diamond and Eugene Linden. Harris was an anthropologist who was born in America. He came up with several theories pertaining cultural evolution. He came up with Cultural Materialism approach where he combined facets of Marxism and several anthropological theories, where he suggested that models of cultural behavior development is based on crucial needs. Jared Diamond was also an American scientist born in Boston. Diamond scrutinized human evolution as well as its significance to the current world, where he incorporated genetics, evolution biology, ecology and anthropology. He also tried to on expound Eurasian Hegemony by use of evidences from genetics, ecology and linguistics. He suggested that gaps in technology and power among human societies failed to reflect racial or cultural differences, but emanates from environmental differences amplified by a couple of feedback loops.
In the book, Eugene Linden (2006) The Winds of Change, Linden demonstrates that sudden climate change characterized by variations of the amount of ice, especially from Greenland was the major significant cause of the collapse of the Akkadian Empire as well as Mayan empire found in Central America. In both empires, the societies were reliant on agriculture and were faced with serious famine due to abrupt drought. The book further gives the details of how climate alteration through history has lead to many other challenges which includes the death of Greenland Norse settlers where the extreme cold thwarted subsistence farming which was well established during the summer period. The other example given in this book is the death of Indian peasants and Chinese due to the drought resulting from El Niño in the year 1877-78. Anyone who enjoys learning anthropology will find Eugene Linden (2006) enchanting.
Authors’ Suggestions and their Evidences
Harris was apparent on how societies come up with complex rituals to avert destroying the ecosystems they rely on, this clarifies banning of the of pig products in Middle East. According to Harris, chubby animals scramble with humans for similar foods. Raising them in numerous numbers would lead to strain on agricultural land by years of desertification along with deforestation. He advocated for their ban to avoid persistent ecological destruction. With this logic, he felt that institution of warfare arose to curtail population strain on the environment in an attempt to balance the ecosystem. About War in primitive societies, he indicated that, war is an efficient medium for population control due to recurring intergroup which places a premium on rearing female rather than male infants (Marvin, 1974). He suggested that, population increase is determined by the number of females who are healthy; giving privilege to males makes their bodies essential for combat which can reduce the need to degrade forest. He concludes that, male supremacy is one of the customs used in primitive societies to regulate population growth although it is not the perfect population growth deterrence act.
Harris wrote about the war which was staged by Jews in opposition to the Roman leaders during the time of Jesus Christ. It is disputed whether Jesus was involved in this revolutionary warfare. However, Harris claims that the concept concerning the peaceful Messiah attained fame in the period of the Roman backlash. Later on, when Christianity achieved official religious condemnation of the Roman Empire, the emphasis swung for the next time to be accommodative to the biggest evangelizing martial on the globe because it had conquered the Mediterranean where insurgents were killed. Harris was concerned that Christianity would attain a full circle providing an ideological support to the revolutionary engagements against the major social sequence in Europe (Marvin, 1974). During this period internal relations were in crisis and large peasant movements were getting a strong support against the clergy overlords. Christians demanded that the vast estates should be partitioned among the poor masses that had really experienced problems resulting from diseases along with poverty. Harris felt that the protectors of the house of worship who occasionally posed as a threat would finally divide the nation while demanding executions of the leaders who appeared to be revolutionary (Marvin, 1974).
In his book, Harris elucidated witchcraft nicely. The nobility along with the clergy became protectors of human race against an omnipresent foe but this was not easily detected. The last resort was to respect the rule of tax collector and to give tithes. This led to the oppression of the poor by the rich in the society because the collected tax was preserved for those who authorized its collection. However, Harris had a feeling that tax would have been meant for poor masses (Marvin, 1974). In this book, Harris is persuasive because he clearly shows that endeavors to explain mysteries of far-flung cultures can assist us have a clear perception of our society. However the question is, if Washington stands for the new Rome, who takes the position of the new Messiahs Or in another sense, are there people who have concern about the poor majority?
Jared Diamond studied in details all what was involved in human evolution. In his argument, he clearly showed that environmental factors had significant impacts on human history. He indicated that, there existed a gap in power and technology between human societies which arose as a result of environmental diversities. He pointed out that, either cultural or genetic diversities have favored Eurasians, of which there were merits which were accrued due to geographical factors and were not inherent in the Eurasian genomes. He suggested that humanity’s most of accomplishments have already occurred in Eurasian. Conducive geographical features also played a vital role in advancement in technology which could be used to measure power (Diamond, 1997). The more the empire was able to adopt sophisticated technology, the more it was considered more powerful. For instance, of the last 500 years, West European had more dominant powers compared to East Asian. The Asian regions where major civilizations occurred possessed geographical features which were conducive to the creation of large, steady, isolated empires which had no external interferences to correct policies, hence their stagnation. However, Europe had numerous natural barricades which allowed the growth of a few competing States. Such competition made the European realms to press on for novelty therefore averting technological stagnation (Diamond, 1997).
Diamond emphasized on two major environmental merits which put Eurasia on top over other areas where farming grew independently. First, they had best natural endowment of animals which can be domesticated (goats, cows, pigs, dogs etc) along with crops. Secondly, its East-West axis location gave a large area with the same latitudes hence comparable climates. Therefore it was easy for people in Eurasia to adopt those animals as well as plants. Contrary, the Americas’ North-South axis compelled Native Americas migrants to adopt new crops and where possible to adopt animals where they were available as they moved from North to South, due to broad discrepancy in climates. For instance, Native Americans had access to corn which only provided few nutrients and it was mandatory they had to be planted one by one hence it was an severely tiresome task. In Eurasia, they had wheat and barley which had high content of fiber and more nutrients and could be planted locally just by tossing in masses by use of hand (Diamond, 1997).
For Sub-Saharan Africans, only the wild animals were mostly accessible to them while Eurasians were more advantaged because they had access to the most docile animals on earth like camels and horses which were easily tamed by humans for transportation. Also Eurasians had access to bullocks for both tilling their fields and transportation; sheep and goats which provided them with skins, cheese and clothing; cows which could provide them with hides and milk; pigs and chicken for bacon and eggs respectively(Diamond, 1997). Diamond J. is clear in his argument because he has shown how conducive environmental factors positively facilitated farming of crops and taming of various animals. Also with practical examples, he has shown how geographical features influenced some regions to advance in technology while inhibiting some. Also he his persuasive because he systematically shows how one thing was leading to another, for example, ambient environmental factors with favorable climates positively affected farming of crops. Differences in climatic conditions made it possible to have different kind of animals for example, in Sub-Saharan Africa only wild animals could be found while in Eurasia, there were camels and horses (Diamond, 1997). However, if environment was the main and only factor which influenced human history, then why has a continent like United States overtaken Europe in both power and technology? Inherent genetic superiority, intellectualism could have their influence considering human history up to current world (Diamond, 1997).
According to Eugene (2006), climate can be considered as humanity’s companion. It can be a tormentor or benefactor toward humanity. He suggested that climate fostered the first of civilization and then persistently caused havoc on people and empires. Eugene gives details of a recurring model where civilizations become affluent and comfortable during favorable weather conditions, but only to fall down due to adverse climatic conditions. This has been through direct devastating effects such as drought or flood, or as a result of indirect impacts such as civil disorder and disease (Linden, 2006). Linden indicates that, climate change is still in its youthful stages and the relationship of climate with historical forces brings about debate concerning the fate of the societies from areas such as Fertile Crescent, Arctic Greenland and Mayan found in North America. Considering fears in historical as well science proof, Linden has explored facts that manifests that climate has been constantly an adamant eradicator of civilizations. The latest example which Linden has illustrated is the tragedy of the New Orleans where the region planned for weather challenges which were experienced in the past. Linden, explains why warnings concerning challenges of climate change have not been given attention and status of climate today. He gives the most overt attention of how perilous climate can be. He is persuasive that, even a society which is aware and ready to absorb perilous events such as Katrina, or the torrents in American Midwest can cascade to a decline if such events get out of hand and more rampant. However, the question is, will the society ever be ready combat the devastating effects of the climatic changes such as droughts and floods?
Comparison of the Authors’ Insights
Harris, Diamond and Linden give their reader’s an insight of how human evolved from their simple way of life to their current status. They give a detailed explanation of various factors which facilitated farming, human civilization, cultural development and innovations. Harris argument that culture possesses varied patterns due to the need of survival. An instance is demonstrated by the Hindu tradition which regards a cow as goddess. Harris claimed that there was nothing spiritual that Indian people required cows for cultivation and milk. Hence, Indians would starve if they devour their cows. Thus, raising cow to the level of deity was because of a purely economic necessity, but this did not mean that they cannot eat cows (Marvin, 1974). Diamond shows conducive environmental factors favoring Eurasia’s migrants and at the same time providing an opportunity to do crop farming and domestication of animals. On the other hand, Linden concludes environment is humanity’s companion and civilization occurred where environment was conducive.
Harris shows human beings started to come up with various integrated system in order to conserve the environment in which they relied on. He indicated human simple ways to conserve the environment. He was concerned about maintaining of a balanced ecosystem. Diamond demonstrated that human evolution was dependent on environment and rejected that there were other forces like intelligence, genetics and moral values which facilitated human evolution. He is not concerned about need to conserve the environment nor does he worry about climate changes. The contrast between Eugene Linden (2006) and the other two authors is that, Eugene becomes irritated that, in spite of scientific accord, politicians are not taking charge of the climate change facing the world. He also becomes frustrated that the community is not compelling the politicians to take measures that can curb climatic challenges. He advocates for a more sophisticated mechanisms to curb climate changes.
Conclusion
Human evolution was greatly influenced by various environmental factors. This is because in areas where the climates were conducive for farming, farmers could comfortably grow crops and at the same time rear different types of animals. Differences in climatic conditions, geography and prehistoric presence of animals and plants greatly influenced the spread of new technology. The technology included utilization of tools, crop raising and domestication of indigenous animals. Once a certain region adopted this, it resulted to food surplus hence increased population growth which was a key to faster advancement. Further, geographical features could either favor or inhibit advancement in technology. History has proven that extreme climatic change is costly and fatal; people are busy propelling the climate towards producing havoc which has never been experienced before in the current times. Most people think that individuals with high standard of living do their in the right way whereas people with low standard of living do their things in the wrong way. In certain cases people with low standard of living may do things in a better way, if environmental factors and diverse initial points were regulated. This gives the insights that the answer to eradicate poverty is not to pressurize poor people behave the way rich people behave. The solution is to make people behave differently than they do now.
Harris has achieved his goal, by convincingly arguing that cultural advancement of a community was dependent of its needs. His controversial interpretations and provocative ideas enabled him to hold the attention of his fellow researchers as well as students. He became a renowned expert in the field of cultural anthropology where he created a paradigm which has persistently been cited in academic circles in the 21st century. Diamond J. achieved his goal in his efforts to demonstrate that human evolution depended on environment. For example, in Eurasia where environment was favorable for agriculture developed at a faster rate than others. The population growth rate increased and there was advancement in technology. In contrast, continent like Sub-Saharan Africa had poor environmental conditions for agriculture hence it lagged behind in its development. This is still evident today when you consider the position Europe stands compared to Africa continent. Also, in places like Asia today, they use elephants for transport, the culture which they have adopted from their ancestors whereas in other places elephants are wild animals. This is a clear evidence that environment could provide both tamable and untamable animals even if they were of the same species. Eugene achieves his goal that, climate change is still taking place and the assumption by most of the Americans that, if any dire change in climate occurs, the society will be able to fight the impacts without long-term devastating effects is merely a far fetched dream. Eugene uses evidences of changing climate which occurs on daily basis, cutting-edge technologies to predict these occurrences as well as repercussions.
Harris argument can be applied in education, for example religion. In religion, Hindus can be provided with useful information about origin of their religious culture for instance prohibition of consumption of cow meat because cows were used for transport. Due to this, cows were considered deity. Diamond J.’s arguments about evolution can been applied in the field of teaching, for instance in history and biology. Historians can refer to diamond ideas when giving the factors which facilitated human evolution, explaining about early civilization and advancement in technology citing where they took place. This helps the learners to know where human beings have come from and why there are differences in power and technology among different communities. Biologists have used Diamond’s ideas to strengthen their facts for example, Nature-Nurture. Eugene’s ideas can be used for teaching purposes, for example in environmental science. This can help the environmentalists decipher the looming dangers of climate change hence, make them to prepare for the change as well as educate the community the need to conserve the environment.
References
Linden, E. (2006). The Wind of Change: Climate, Weather, and the Destruction of Civilizations. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Diamond, J. (1997).Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton.
Marvin, H. (1974).Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches: The Riddles of Culture. New York: Vintage.