Jean-Francois Lyotard was a French sociologist, philosopher and a literary theorist. He remains one of the most prominent philosophers of the twentieth century. This scholar was interested in defining the current society in the context of modernity. This scholar noted that the world has changed a greatly, and there are factors that did not exist before which exist in the modern society. This scholar focused his study on post modernity.
The world today, according to this scholar, has advanced in various fronts. He looks at the factors that are brought about by post modernity. Modernity has brought about a number of changes in society. In fact, social problems in society today are attributed to modernity. A modern society is full of technological changes implying that humanity relies on technology heavily. In this regard, all aspects of life rely on technology.
This scholar defines postmodernism in respect to modernity. When the world adopted the aspects of modernity, a number of factors came into existence. Of interest was the fact that the society came to accept the importance of painting. Painting was considered an extremely valuable art that was used to pass given information. Such prestigious places as the church heavily depended on paintings to communicate to its audience.
This scholar notes that leaders of the church could explain their ideas through the word of mouth. However, other details could only be explained through painting. For instance, people were convinced that God was a significant being that was seen by a few exceptional individuals in the past.
Moreover, it is recorded that he came in different forms and, therefore, it was impossible to come up with his image. However, it was recorded in the bible that Jesus lived amongst us. People would want to see an image of Jesus and other saints. It was only through paintings that such an image could be reproduced.
Postmodernism seems to change this pierce of art. The world is no longer a place where people cherish painting. Photography seems to have thoroughly overtaken painting as a form of imaging. People currently rely on photos to present their images. It is not only easy and less time consuming, but also more accurate than the baroques that existed in the old era.
Another factor that has characterized postmodernism, according to Lyotard is literature. Modernity saw a rise in literature. Literature was becoming particularly relevant in society in different fronts. Children needed literature as a form of entertainment. Listening to a piece of literature to them was a very good experience.
They found it not only funny, but also scary at times. Parents, therefore, realized that they could use literature as a way of guiding their children. Literature could be used to discourage undesirable behavior in children. In high schools, literature became even more powerful.
Teachers used literature to gauge whether children had the capacity to comprehend a given volume of information. Literature was also used as a way of taking children through a rite of passage. During modernity, parents did not have the opportunity to teach their children some values that were expected of them when they became adults. This task was pushed to teachers. To achieve this objective, literature became exceedingly crucial.
Lyotard says that postmodernism did not come to change the above facts. He states that postmodernism did not come to end artistry. Painting was not to vanish because of photography. It was supposed to advance painting. Movies and the film industry in general were not supposed to end literature. It was supposed to be the period when literature would be advanced. It was a time when literature would flourish because technology would make it easy to write.
According to Lyotard, postmodernism is part of the modern society. He says that postmodernism is not the end of modernism. It is not a new era whereby modernity can be brought to an end. However, this scholar says that postmodernism is part of modernism. He defines it as a stage of modernism. It is advanced modernism characterized by a host of new approaches of doing things. According to this scholar, postmodernism is a new approach of addressing issues that are already in existence.
In the current society, it is extremely rare to see children listening to tales from their parents or reading books. This is because of two main factors. The first factor is that the current society has both parents earning a living for the family and, therefore, they have limited time with their children. The time for telling tales is not available to these parents. The emergence of television and such programs as cartoons have attracted attention of children so much. Reading books is boring to them and hectic.
Despite this apparent change, nothing has changed. The cartoons and the movies still have the narrative that existed in literature only that their presentation has enhanced. Photography remains as advanced painting. It is, therefore, true according to Lyotard that nothing has changed amidst the perceived massive changes in the environment.
Subversion of Gender and Sexual Norms in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night
Shakespeare’s literatures remain extremely popular several centuries after his death. Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night is one of the most thrilling plays that were tremendously popular in 1600s. This play brings to focus subversion of gender and sexual norm during this period. Shakespeare has written many books where gender identity of an individual would be concealed from others and the dramatic turn of events that would follow this disguise.
In the play Twelfth Night, we are presented with Viola, who is the protagonist of the play. Viola and her brother Sebastian were on high seas when their ship was wrecked by a bad weather. A captain, who later helps her find a job as a pager of Duke Orsino, helps her. She believes that her brother Sebastian perished in the wreckage.
Luckily, Antonio, who becomes fond of him, rescues Sebastian. Duke Orsino is deeply in love with Olivia, a beautiful rich maiden whose father and brother passed on recently. Orsino is convinced that one day he will win the heart of Olivia. While working as a pager for Duke Orsino, Viola is frequently sent to Olivia with messages of love. Orsino believes that Viola is a man. He takes her as his confidant and reveals to her how much he loves Olivia.
Olivia becomes exceedingly fond of Viola because she is a frequent visitor. Olivia knows that Viola is a man. She considers Viola as a remarkably handsome man. As Viola continues to visit her, a new twist springs up in the play. Olivia falls in love with Viola, the pager. Orsino does not realize this fact. He continues sending Viola to Olivia, and the more this happens, the more Olivia develops strong love for Viola.
This brings a serious subversion of gender. Viola has presented herself as a man. Save for the captain who rescued her in the high seas, everyone else in this land knows that Viola is a man. The intrigue about the sexual norm surrounding Viola comes in two ways. As a pager of Duke Orsino, Viola becomes so close to the Duke. She falls in love with him. This is extremely natural because she is a woman who has fallen in love with a handsome man.
To Duke Orsino, however, Viola is a man. Despite this, the Duke develops exceptionally strong feelings for her. This is particularly evident when he confides in her. The way Orsino talks to Viola is not a normal way that a master would talk to a servant. He betrays his emotion towards her. This is subversive to the cultural norm. Although the audience knows that falling in love with Viola is normal because she is a woman, to the eye of Orsino, Viola was a man.
It is normal for Olivia to have fallen in love with Viola because she (Viola) disguised herself as a man. Olivia was, therefore, seeing her beauty and considered her a remarkably handsome man. However, Viola knows that she cannot fall in love with her. She knows that Viola has mistaken her for a man, and therefore does not return the affection given to her by Olivia.
Another intrigue comes between Sebastian, the brother to Viola, and Antonio the captain. Antonio rescued Sebastian from the wreckage at the high seas. He takes good care of Sebastian and provides him with all his needs. The fondness becomes so intense that Antonio decides to accompany him to Illyria.
Although Antonio is not directly saying that he is in love with Sebastian, his actions betray this strong love. This is confirmed when Sebastian marries Olivia at last. He is melancholic after this marriage. He resigns s to his fate, a sign that he has lost a battle he was sure of wining.
The marriage between Sebastian and Olivia was purely out of mistaken identity. As explained above, the mistaken identity started when Viola concealed her real identity. Olivia had tried to suppress her love for her and could not withstand it anymore.
Emotion overwhelmed her, and she decided to tell her that she loved her. When she meets Sebastian by a coincident, she professes her love to him and demands that he should marry her. She knew that she was talking to Cesario, who is Viola. Sebastian is a little shocked at the act of this beautiful but strange woman.
The Duke finally realizes that her servant, Cesario is beautiful woman Viola. He instantly professes to her that he had always developed strong feelings towards her, but could not speak out because he believed that she was a man. The two plan to marry as the play comes to its end.
Early Modern Ideas about Marriage Portrayed In the Play
The play Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare clearly portrays ideas about marriage during this time. One of the most common factors about marriage that comes out clearly is that it was made from a decision of two consenting adults. One could not force marriage on the other partner if the partner did not wish.
The society that Shakespeare portrays in this play is one, which every member of the society has a right to choose his or her partner. Duke Orsino could not use his power to force Olivia into marriage. He had to convince her. He had to use every available means to attract her attention and win her heart.
This even includes using his servant to pass his message to her. This freedom is further demonstrated in the actions of Olivia. She refused his charms and made it clear to him that she was not ready for any serious relationship for the next seven years. Funny enough, she falls for Cesario (Viola) the messenger. This demonstrates that the argument that she was not ready for a relationship for the next seven years was an excuse.
Another factor about marriage in during this time in this society was that there was no form of discrimination based on the social class. His fellow workers that his mistress, Olivia, was in love with him convinced Malvolio. When he received a letter purported to be written by Olivia, she strongly believes it. This shows that the social class was not an issue. This is further confirmed when Duke Orsino finally makes the decision to marry Viola who had served him for some time.
Another clear fact that comes out in this play is that marriage was considered as normal when it was between a man and a woman. A relationship between a woman and a woman was considered abnormal and unacceptable. Antonio developed strong emotions towards Sebastian. The fondness was near romance, and that is why he had some sense of nostalgia when he realized that Sebastian was marrying fair Olivia. Viola liked Olivia because of her attitude towards her.
She was kind to her, and she always felt particularly comfortable in her presence. When she realized that it was getting romantic, she started sympathizing with her. She knew that they could not get romantic at all because of their gender. Both were women, and the love that Olivia had for her was misplaced. She knew that they could not have any relationship because the society considered such acts unnatural.
Ways in Which Early Modern Ideas about Marriage and Same-Sex Desire Differ From the Modern Society
Same sex marriages or what is commonly referred to as homosexuality remains one of the most controversial issues in the current society. Same sex desires are increasingly becoming extremely common. Men marrying other men or women marrying other women is common phenomena in the current society. This trend is exceedingly common in the west.
This play presents some form of the same sex desires. Sebastian was uncommonly handsome man. He resembled her fair sister Viola. When Antonio rescued him in the high seas, Antonio developed a serious fondness towards him. Antonio was well aware that Sebastian was a man, and the best that could come out from the relationship could not be anything than best friends.
However, the captain developed a strong urge to be near him always. He did not want to lose sight of him, a fact that made him follow Sebastian to Illyria. It would make one guess that Antonio wanted to get romantic with Sebastian.
Some facts in this play make same sex desires, as one expressed by Antonio, different from what it is in the present society. Antonio’s motive was driven by his need for a companion. He needed someone who could always be with him and share his feelings. He saw this person in Sebastian.
This is different from the drive that is witnessed today. In the current society, individuals are motivated by the desires for sex. A new crop of individuals has emerged who are not sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex. They are men who want to get intimate with fellow men, or women who have such desired. In the current society, it is common to get scenarios where people in authority rapping those who trusted them the most that they can never do such an act.
Scenarios where fathers sexually molest heir sons are very common in the contemporary society. This proves beyond any reasonable doubt that in the current word, the drive for same sex desires is to have sex.
The play demonstrates this in two main ways. First, for all the time that Antonio was with Sebastian, he never gave any indication that he wanted to get intimate with him. He had power over him, especially after rescuing him from the high seas. Sebastian also liked him much, but knew that to get intimate, he needed a woman, and Olivia was the one he desired.
The second proof is the relationship between Orsino and Viola. Orsino knew that Viola was a man. Although he developed some serious fondness towards her, he never made any serious move to show that he wanted to get intimate with her. He could not understand how a man could get intimate with a fellow man. Orsino had Viola within his rich. However, no attempts were made towards being intimate.
The play presents a society that respects the institution of marriage. Marriage in this society is purely based on love. This love had to be based on mutual agreement between the involved parties.
Olivia did not have any romantic feelings towards Duke Orlando. She therefore turned down his proposal despite the status and amount of wealth commanded by Duke Orlando. This is a little different from what is taking place in the current society. People in the current society are very materialistic. They put a lot of emphasis on material benefits than on emotions.
They can therefore, fake emotions in order to benefit materially. Same sex desires is flourishing in the current society because people are easily swayed with money. For this reason, a person who is wealthy and his sexual orientation is towards an individual of the same sex will always have his way. They will use their wealth to convince those whom they desire to be their partners. This is one of the strongest pillars of same sex relationship today.
The modern day society has changed in various fronts. People are always busy trying to meet specific targets in life. Women in the modern society have become breadwinners in their families, and they will always prepare for this even before marriage.
Romance is beautifully portrayed in this play, something that is on the decline in the current society because everyone is busy. People in the modern day work six hours in a week. They have limited time to socialize with others. Decisions about marriage are therefore made in a rush. People get into marriage only to realize that they cannot withstand each other.
This emphasis on climbing the social ladder in the society is slowly killing romance in the modern day marriages. Couples have limited time to share together as husband and wife, or lovers. One may argue that the marriage between Olivia and Sebastian was rushed up. However, to the eyes of Olivia, Sebastian was Cesario whom she had known for a long time as a messenger of Duke Orsino.
Sebastian agreed to the marriage based on two factors. First, his sister Viola had confirmed to him that Olivia was a good person who could make a good wife. Because of the trust he had towards the sister, she believed her. The second reason was that he was attracted to her and was convinced that they could make a family.
He fell in love with her. When Olivia came to know of the identity of Sebastian, she did not change her mind. To her, Sebastian was the Cesario that she had admired for a very long time. The fact that he was a brother to Viola made it even easy to internalize this fact.
It can be concluded that poetry is an imitation employed by writers to express views ad opinions in society. In many fictional poems, characters are portrayed with either better or worse behaviors as compared to behaviors of real characters. Other writers try as much as possible to match the objects of poetic imitation with real life events.
In his works, Aristotle differentiates between humor and tragedy. He notes that tragedy entails presenting objects of poetic imitation in a better way than they would appear in real life. In other words, tragedy is the presentation of characters in an idealized form. Therefore, a tragic poet tries to present better life as compared to real life. This would mean that tragic poetry criticizes the existing form of life. The characters in a tragic poem have better qualities as compared to the qualities of characters in real life.