Patriarchal attitudes towards women managers
Patriarchal attitudes towards female managers are characterized by the strict division of roles where women are confined to household activities and rearing children with no or minimal social activity (Mostafa, 2005). Although the country’s economy may develop at a high pace, women may still be confined to households in traditional societies (Emirates 24/7, 2012; NAMA Women Advancement Establishment, 2019). These attitudes are associated with a negative view of female managers who are regarded as individuals who go against the rules and behave in an inappropriate manner that may require rebuke or even punishment.
Traditional attitude hypothesis and outcomes
The traditional attitude hypothesis explains the shifts expected and taking place in the UAE due to the influence information has on people. New ideas and data penetrate society through diverse channels (mainly, the media) and gradually affect people’s views making them more open-minded. In terms of this model, the changing attitudes towards female managers among young generations are explained by their exposure to new ideas (Ismail, 2013).
Gender gap hypothesis
This hypothesis is related to the gap between parents and children. The latter tend to rebel against the former, but this framework is not typical of the Arab world where children live with their parents until they have their own families (Mostafa, 2005). Arab children are under their parents’ influence for a large part of their (or their entire) life. This paradigm leads to young generations’ focus on traditions supported by their older close ones, which makes young people have negative attitudes towards female managers. Mostafa (2005) notes that the gender gap has a different impact on people across the Arab world.
Gender differences hypothesis
According to Mostafa (2005), Arab males are less likely to have positive views concerning women managers, while Arab females have a positive perspective regarding the matter. This difference is associated with females’ acknowledgment of their professional potential and willingness to play active roles in society. However, males are not willing to share responsibilities, which leads to negative attitudes towards female managers (Gallant & Pounder, 2008).
Nino Women Sexuality Equality
The consequences of the sexual revolution include the creation of two images of freed women (Nino, 2005). On the one hand, these are businesswomen concentrated on their professional lives and sharing roles with men. On the other hand, these are the images of females concentrated on their sexuality and freedom of expression in the bedroom. Other results include women’s freedom to develop romantic relationships without getting married, be more assertive in sexual and romantic relationships, have a safer working environment.
The myths regarding the differences between men and women are as follows:
- Men focus on achievements, while women concentrate on relationships.
- Men are rational problem solvers, and females are emotional.
- Females place a higher value on the family rather than a career.
Nino (2005) states that 46% of the U.S. workforce consists of females, and the number of working women in households has grown from almost 60% to 72% since the 1980s. However, women tend to choose family life (the role of a mother, a housewife) rather than a career woman as they face numerous obstacles in their working places. Rather than try to overcome the barriers, women choose to focus on the family.
The author refers, to a larger extent, to females’ sexual freedom that is being misused. Women are divided into two groups: businesswomen and those using their sexuality as the primary commodity. In the media, the latter image prevails, making men confused when working with females. Nino (2005) states that men tend to see females as sexually free objects rather than professionals in specific business fields.
The use of sexuality as a commodity by women means that females exploit their bodies, trying to make them sexually attractive for men, to access resources provided by the man. Females do not use their brains to become high-achievers in diverse professions (Barber, 2009). They invest in their bodies (plastic surgeries, fitness and spa centers, and so on) to become an attractive object that could be bought by a man who has resources.
Some of the informal communication networks associated with men’s social links can be golf clubs, fishing, hunting, and having drinks in pubs and strip clubs. These activities and venues are mainly confined to males, and females (or mixed groups) seem out of place. Men prefer spending time with men when engaging in the activities mentioned above, and important decisions related to professional aspects are often made there.
Feminist Conflict Theory
External factors often determine how and when females can gain economic power. For instance, the demand for labor is one of these factors. When the number of men completing certain tasks reduces, females take up their roles and can eventually occupy those niches gaining economic power (Turner, 2003). Such scenarios are common during wars when men leave their homes and professions for some time.
The strategic indispensability of female labor leads to women’s gaining economic power if the level of female expertise is high, if females can work without male supervision, and if they can win the competition with other groups (such as immigrants).
The kinship system is also a factor determining female economic empowerment as some women have increased access to resources (Turner, 2003). Being a member of an influential (wealthy, political elite) family or residing near their kin enables women to have their relatives support and, at the very least, to control the domestic property.
The degree of the men’s control of resources in the family or community also determines women’s ability to gain economic power (Turner, 2003). If men’s control enhances, women tend to lose the power and resources they used to have.
Without economic power, Blumberg argues, women are denied honor and prestige, and more important, they have less control over such basic matters as their fertility patterns (when and how many children to have), their marriages (when, if, and with whom), their rights to seek a divorce, their premarital sex, their access to extramarital sex, their household activities, their levels and types of education, and their freedom to move about and pursue diverse interests and opportunities. Thus, economic power has important consequences for what women can, or cannot do in a society. Economic power makes women able to distribute resources, so people having limited economic power (both males and females) are more ready to share responsibilities and rights in exchange for some resources.
Janet Saltzman Chafetz’s Gender Equity Theory
Gender stratification refers to the societal structure characterized by the distribution of roles based on gender. Gender stratification tends to result in males’ access to resource and their control over the distribution of roles and resources. For instance, the gendered division of labor ensures the maintenance of the system where men complete certain tasks and have specific responsibilities, which is seen as appropriate and effective. Females can access roles that are not occupied by men, which results in male’s economic power at the macrolevel. Males occupying specific positions in society are granted the right to control macro and micro-levels, so they become the authority in the family (or relationships) as well.
Gender social definitions include stereotypes, norms, and ideologies regarding the roles females should and can play in the society and on the micro level. For example, some people (both males and females) continue believing that males can be more effective in solving problems related to emergency situations, which results in women’s limited access to various roles and professions, especially in the military sphere. In the UAE, for instance, it is believed that females who have received education abroad are less dignified that those staying home (Haddad, 2010). This belief makes women afraid of obtaining a higher education due to potential issues related to finding an Emirati husband.
Macro-level divisions of labor can be seen as the beliefs and norms accepted in the society that can hardly be violated. Males are assigned to managerial roles due to the belief that they will be concentrated on their duties rather than family issues. They also receive more resources as they are believed to have the necessary skills, and they are physically fit to complete these tasks.
References
Barber, L. (2009). My harsh lesson in love and life.The Guardian. Web.
Emirates 24/7. (2012). Marriage in UAE on the rise! And divorces.Emirates 24/7. Web.
Gallant, M., & Pounder, J. S. (2008). The employment of female nationals in the United: Arab Emirates (UAE): An analysis of opportunities and barriers. Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 1(1), 26-33.
Haddad, A. (2010). Emirati men shun women who study abroad.The National. Web.
Ismail, M. (2013). Almost half do not care if it’s yes sir or yes ma’am. The National, 04.
Mostafa, M. (2005). Attitudes towards women managers in the United Arab Emirates: The effects of patriarchy, age, and sex differences. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(5/6), 522-540.
NAMA Women Advancement Establishment. (2019). Diversity in business leadership: Women in the economy: The gulf region outlook.
Nino, L. (2006). Women: Feminism, sexuality, and equality in the work place. E-Leader. Web.
Turner, J. (2003). The structure of sociological theory (7th ed.). Thompson/Wadsworth.