Landforms
Part of the territory of Cuba is occupied by sub-platform areas composed of limestone and structurally related to the limestone plateaus of Yucatan, Florida and the Bahamas. In the southeast, the island is crossed by the main folded system of the Antillean Island Arc, forming the Sierra Maestra Mountain range. The Vinales Valley is particularly beautiful, surrounded by steeply sloping dome-shaped hills with a height of 300-400 m, with numerous caves (Batista et al. 95).
The longest river is the Kauto in the mountainous region of the southeast of the country, with a length of about 240 km, navigable for small vessels in the lower reaches for about 120 km (Batista et al. 104). The soils of Cuba are mainly developed on limestone weathering products; these red-colored, powerful soils are highly fertile and favorable for the cultivation of tropical plantation crops, primarily sugar cane. The physical map of Cuba can be accessed in Figure 1 below.
Weather & Climate
It should be noted that Cuba’s climate can be categorized as temperate and semitropical. It mainly experiences dual seasonality, which oscillates between a dry season to a rainy one. Overall, Cuban weather can be described as humid, hot, and sunny for most part of the year. For example, in Havana, the average annual temperature is 25°C, the temperature of the coldest month (January) is 22°C, and the warmest (July) is 28°C (Batista et al. 107).
The highest temperature on the island is 38°C (Batista et al. 96). Throughout the island, with the exception of the extreme southeast, there is a lot of rain (at least 1100 mm per year), mainly in summer and autumn. In winter, the weather is sunny and dry (Batista et al. 95). The contrast between seasons in the region can be seen in Figure 2 below.
Natural Regions
The island of Cuba lies in the tropical belt in the Caribbean natural region and is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Like most Caribbean islands, this region is of volcanic origin, includes volcanic peaks, and has a mountainous nature. The Caribbean natural region has 52,000 square kilometers of coral reefs, which is approximately 9% of the total number of coral reefs worldwide (Johnson 765).
It should be noted that there are six major natural parks in Cuba. These include Alejandro de Humboldt National Park, Sierra de Escambray Range, Caguanes National Park, Desembarco del Granma National Park, Pico Turquino Peak Area, Santiago de Cuba, and Guanahacabibes Peninsula National Park (Blanchet par. 1). For the latter, it is “situated in Eastern Cuba, approximately 94 kilometers from Pinar del Ro … an exceptional flora and fauna, comprising 172 birds, 700 plants, 18 animals, 35 reptiles, and 19 amphibian species” (Blanchet par. 2). An example of a Cuban landscape can be accessed in Figure 3 below.
European Conquest
In 1512, Diego Velasquez landed in the eastern part of the island, near the present city of Baracoa (Johnson 762). He founded the first Spanish settlement in Cuba there, and by 1515 he had established seven cities, including Havana (Johnson 761). For about 400 years, the country was a colony of Spain (Johnson 759). The main purpose of the presence of the Spaniards was gold, but in Cuba, the Spaniards failed to discover deposits of this precious metal.
Then the Spaniards tried to force the Indians to work on sugar cane plantations, but without success. The Indians, under the leadership of their leaders Atway in 1510-1512 and Guam in 1529-1532, offered heroic resistance to the conquerors, but the forces were unequal (Johnson 761). By 1537, only about 5 thousand Indians remained on the island; very soon, almost all the indigenous inhabitants were destroyed or died from backbreaking work (Johnson 759).
For hard work, the Spaniards brought African slaves; slavery on the island was abolished only in 1886 (Johnson 761). The history of Cuba is similar to the history of other colonies of the West Indies: the search for precious metals and precious stones, the extermination of the indigenous population (Indians), the importation of Negro slaves from Africa, discord between the rulers of Cuba, the wide spread of all kinds of tropical diseases, ruinous pirate raids on settlements. In 1596, Cuba received the status of a captaincy general within the Spanish state (Johnson 759).
Politics
Cuba is a republic; it is a form of government in which supreme power is exercised by a group of persons elected for a certain term, elected by the people. In Cuba, the supreme authority is the People’s Assembly of People’s Power, which represents and expresses the sovereign will of the entire people (Callesano and Carter 74). In the Republic of Cuba, all power belongs to the working people, who exercise it through the Assemblies of People’s Power and other State bodies formed by them or directly. Cuba is a presidential republic: the Head of State is the President, elected by universal suffrage (Callesano and Carter 90). They combine the powers of the head of state and the head of executive power in one person.
Cuba has an authoritarian regime characterized by a continuing monopoly on power. However, it does not claim total control over society, having some elements of democracy. The Communist Party is the supreme governing force of the State and society (Callesano and Carter 68). At the same time, the people are not alienated from the government. They exercise their will through the Assemblies of People’s Power and other State bodies formed by them or directly. In the system of separation of powers, the legislative and executive powers are centralized in the hands of one person, specifically the head of state.
At the same time, state bodies develop their activities on the basis of the principles of socialist democracy, unity of power and democratic centralism. Currently, Cuba maintains diplomatic and economic relations with superpowers such as the United States, China, Canada, and a number of leading European countries. In total, relations are asserted with 165 countries, mainly in the field of medicine, sports, and education (Callesano and Carter 77).
Race, Ethnicity, & Class
The ethnogenesis of Cubans was influenced by many peoples. Representatives of Indian tribes were almost all exterminated, so the percentage of admixture of Indian blood in modern Cubans is very small. Throughout the history of Cuba, emigrants from Germany, Spain, England, as well as from France settled on its territory. As a result, Cuba is inhabited by a huge number of diverse mestizos with signs of a particular nation.
After 1959, class differences in Cuba became less glaring (Smith 249). Access to medical care, food, clothing, and education was no longer determined by a person’s sphere of employment and his belonging to any class group. Before the socialist revolution, only 45% of the population had primary education, 9% had secondary education, and 4% had higher education (Smith 249). By 1988, these figures were: 100%, 85% and 21%, respectively (Smith 249). In other words, the number of salaries has additionally increased significantly.
After the revolution period, a privileged stratum of society reappeared, which was a direct result of capitalist reform. Owners of new private enterprises have direct access to imported products and luxury goods, while other Cubans are starving. Those living in the tourist area have an additional room in the house or apartment and can rent it to tourists at market rates. These people pay significant payment obligations to the state in exchange for permission (Smith 250). Despite this, many citizens thus managed to accumulate impressive funds in difficult times for the country.
During the revolutionary times, Cubans experienced enormous financial difficulties. Currently, poverty continues to take over the island more and more. Along with capitalist tendencies and social stratification, the process of commodification is beginning to determine the lifestyle of Cubans. For those young people who do not remember what Cuba was like before the revolution, the United States is the trendsetter of capitalist fashion. Things with fashion labels are highly appreciated such as Nike shoes or Levi’s jeans. Excess of material wealth becomes an indicator of social status.
Culture Regions
The process of formation of the Cuban culture regions has three main beginnings, which gradually merged into the integration of ethnic society. One of its roots is the Aboriginal population, whose ethnic influence turned out to be insignificant as a result of its extermination in the process of conquest and colonization. In this regard, two other ethnic roots, Spanish and African, had a greater influence on the formation of cultural regions. The first of them was the result of the migration of the Spanish population from the metropolis.
African roots have left a special mark on the formation of Cuban culture. Cultures of black slaves of various ethnic groups (Yoruba, Mandigna, Congo, Carabalia and Bantu) mixed with each other on plantations, creating new cultural associations within the African communities themselves (Megna et al. 2716). In modern Cuban society, these three principles form the basis of the cultural regions of the people. Music and dance art occupy a special place in the lifestyle of the inhabitants of Cuba.
Music and dancing Cubans largely adopted from the Spaniards. The most popular dances – rumba and salsa– are characteristic features of the Spanish cultural region (Megna et al. 2725). The conga line dance is specific to the African cultural region. It was invented by African slaves chained up and working on plantations. The movements of the dance repeat the behavior of a person chained in chains.
Cuba is known in the world not only for music and dancing but also for sports achievements in boxing and volleyball. Sports can also be considered a reflection of cultural traditions. Cuba cannot be imagined without festivals that are specific to each cultural region. For example, the famous Carnival of Chariots is held in Havana every summer (Megna et al. 2715). During it, special stages with music and dance groups travel through the streets of the Cuban capital for three days, as well as street processions of musicians are held. Folk crafts fairs are regularly held in all cultural regions, in which various musical, dance and theater groups participate.
Religion
Religious faith has not had as strong an impact on Cuban culture as it has on other Latin American countries for two main reasons. Firstly, during the colonial period, the clergy in Cuba were represented exclusively by Spaniards (Caraway 328). They symbolized the power of the colonial power, so such a religion as Catholicism was not particularly appreciated among the Cuban population, which has always fought for independence. Secondly, there were not so many priests in rural areas, especially in Orient. Cuban believers followed their religious practices. That is why the faith in Cuba, which became widespread among white Cubans and Creoles, was a mixture of the Catholic religion with African traditions.
In the 1990s, Protestant missionaries began arriving in Cuba (Caraway 324). From that moment on the island of Cuba, religion begins to undergo significant changes. The number of Catholics is also gradually increasing: the Pope visited the island in January 1998 (Caraway 331). Particularly popular recently is such a religion as evangelical Protestantism, which meets the needs of the poor local population. At the moment, the overwhelming number of Cubans are Christians; more than 59% of local residents profess this religion, which is about 7 million people (Caraway 327). Besides the Cubans themselves, other inhabitants of the island are Christians — Jamaicans, Spaniards and Greeks.
Agriculture & Food Production
Agriculture and farming have been the traditional occupation of the locals of the island of Cuba since ancient times, as the land is particularly fertile due to the abundance of growing tropical plants, warm climate and regular precipitation. Like many other aspects of Cuban life, agriculture in Cuba has a complex history of difficulties and extremes. In 1959, when the new government came to power, foreign companies and private owners owned 75% of Cuba’s arable land (Gonzalez-Corzo 19). The main crop was sugar, which was entirely bought up by the United States of America and Great Britain. The cultivation of tobacco and citrus crops was also developed.
Cuba is currently one of the world leaders in biotechnology in agriculture, with a very impressive volume of organic food production (Gonzalez-Corzo 17). Cuban farmers and agricultural scientists apply traditional and alternative technologies to food production and crop cultivation. Much attention is paid to the cultivation of cane for the production of sugar, rice and tobacco for cigars.
About 38% of rice is produced on individual farms (Gonzalez-Corzo 13). Coffee trees are grown on private plantations, yielding 22% of the world’s coffee bean production (Gonzalez-Corzo 20). 70% of all Cuban tobacco is grown in Pinar Del Rio Province (Gonzalez-Corzo 20). Other main agricultural crops of Cuba are oranges, lemon and ramp, grapefruit and rice.
Cooperative forms of land use are the most common. They are based on the Basic Cooperative Economy, which includes more than 2,500 agricultural and farming enterprises (Gonzalez-Corzo 13). Over 22% of vegetables are grown on the territories of these farms, 42% of all milk is produced, as well as 36% of citrus fruits in the country, and at least 16% of various fruits (Gonzalez-Corzo 20). Animal husbandry and fishing are also highly developed. There are many farms in Cuba engaged in cattle and pig breeding, and many farmers raise birds (Gonzalez-Corzo 14). Agricultural lands are even partially located in cities. Small farms and agricultural plots supply the city with fresh vegetables, herbs, eggs and other products.
Mining, Manufacturing, & Tourism
Deposits of a number of types of mineral raw materials are known in Cuba. Oil and peat are extracted from raw energy materials on the island. Moreover, in Cuba, there are large deposits of ores of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals: iron, manganese, chromium, copper, nickel, cobalt and gold (Vidal-Alejandro 287). Various types of raw materials are mined on the island: chemical (pyrite, phosphorites) and non-metallic industrial (gypsum, magnesite, kaolin). Non-metallic building materials are also extracted – cement raw materials, facing stone, and flux material. There are also known manifestations of lead, zinc, tungsten, and strontium.
Small oil deposits are known within the northern part of central and western Cuba. First of all, these are the districts of Havana and Varadero, the fields of Boca de Haruco and Motembo. Industrial oil and gas potential is established in the sediments of the Mesozoic (Upper Jurassic, Cretaceous) and Cenozoic. The most studied are the North Cuban and Central Cuban basins. Oils from medium to very heavy, sulfurous and high-sulfur, resinous and highly resinous. Oil deposits are known in the provinces of Villa Clara and Camaguey within the Central Depression of Cuba, made by rocks of the molasse complex.
In 1974, the drilling of inclined wells began the search for oil on the shelf (Cardenas Bay), which is associated with the main prospects for the discovery of new fields (Vidal-Alejandro 277). Large reserves of iron ores are contained in laterite nickel-cobalt deposits of northeastern Cuba. On the southeastern islands, on the southern slopes of the Sierra Maestra ridge, small contact-metasomatic deposits of magnetite are known in exodontist rocks of the granitoid complex.
Cuba ranks 1st in the North American continent in terms of reserves of nickel and cobalt ores (Vidal-Alejandro 285). Nickel silicate ores are estimated at 19 million tons, and cobalt makes about 10% of nickel reserves (Vidal-Alejandro 290). The main explored deposits of nickel and cobalt silicate ores associated with the laterite weathering crust are located in the northeast of the country, within the province of Holguin.
The main branch of the Cuban economy is the sugar industry, and the main agricultural crop is sugar cane. There are about 170 sugar processing plants operating in the country; animal husbandry and fishing are being developed (Vidal-Alejandro 287). There are enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical industry, two oil refineries in Cuba. The country has developed a light and food industry. The famous Cuban cigars are produced by 6 tobacco factories (Vidal-Alejandro 284).
An important source of income is international tourism. Agriculture, forestry and fishing account for 5% of GDP (Vidal-Alejandro 287). These industries employ 25% of the workforce (Vidal-Alejandro 284). Industry and construction account for 34%, and 24% of the economically active population is involved in them, and the service sector – 58% (Vidal-Alejandro 288). The share of the extractive industry in GDP is 3% (Vidal-Alejandro 289).
In the manufacturing sector of Cuba, the mining industry is an industry where existing projects are concentrated. Within their framework, work is carried out on the assessment, exploration and exploitation of deposits: copper, gold, silver, chromium, magnesium, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel. To date, more than 50 industrial contracts have been implemented, covering an area of about 40 thousand square meters km in 37 of the most promising areas from the point of view of geological exploration (Vidal-Alejandro 290).
Tourism in Cuba attracts more than 2 million people annually, and is one of the main sources of income for the island state (Vidal-Alejandro 290). Tourism revenues are growing every year, as is the number of foreign tourists. Canada is in first place in terms of tourist arrivals, Germany is in second place in terms of arrivals, and the United Kingdom is in third place (Vidal-Alejandro 291).
Previously, Americans were banned from visiting Cuba, which is actually subject to an economic blockade due to the United States. In May 2016, according to the information of the Ministry of Tourism of Cuba, an agreement was reached with the US authorities to allow at least 110 weekly flights from the USA to Liberty Island (Vidal-Alejandro 285). The Chinese are also showing great interest in holidays in Cuba: a direct flight from Beijing to Havana was opened.
The main problems in the country’s tourism industry now are the improvement of the quality of service and the lack of hotels, which is why rebooking often occurs. The first issue is solved in the country by retraining staff. And the new Investment Law offers certain benefits to foreign companies in the construction of new hotels and renovation of old ones. Due to this, it is planned to open at least 2,500 rooms annually in order to bring the total number of hotel rooms in Cuba to 108 thousand by 2030 (Vidal-Alejandro 280). Renovation of Cuban airports is also planned.
Urbanization, Population Growth, & Migration
Cuba has a fairly high level of urbanization (80%), but the urban population is located unevenly: more than one-third of it falls in Greater Havana (Cederlöf 72). The population of Cuba in 2020 was 11,327 thousand people, or 0.15% of the world’s population (Cederlöf 63). The country ranks 83rd in the world in this indicator (Cederlöf 53). Haiti comes before Cuba, and South Sudan comes after in 84th place; 78% are residents of cities (Cederlöf 73).
Cuba is located in an area of 106.440 km2, which means that there are 106 inhabitants per 1 square kilometer (Cederlöf 59). There are 45 residents in Cuba’s 14 largest cities, which is 2% of the population of the whole country (Cederlöf 69). Despite the preponderance of the rural population in the province, there are 82 residential areas with more than 1,000 inhabitants and a group of cities with more than 30,000 inhabitants, which are evenly distributed throughout the territory (Cederlöf 73).
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study of the Cuban labor force (Cederlöf 57). A large percentage of the rural population moves to cities as production is developed and agricultural centers are developing. Within this population, there are circles of the population accustomed to agricultural labor. They can adapt to such an industry as the mechanization of agriculture and thereby accelerate the process of industrialization.
The natural movement of the population in Cuba has an indicator of positive population growth. The absolute value of the difference between the number of births and deaths over a certain period of time is positive. The calculation of natural population growth in Cuba is also affected by the difference between the total population growth and migration growth (Cederlöf 71). The natural population growth in Cuba is influenced by a large number of factors. These are the standard of living in the country, including the material living conditions of people, the level of healthcare, nutrition, and working and living conditions of people. The gender, age and marital structures of the population, urban and rural lifestyles, low employment of women in public production, and national and religious traditions also play a role.
The birth rate in Cuba depends on the socio-economic structure of society and the living conditions of people. However, this dependence is not direct. Women are not actively involved in the production and social life, so the birth rate is high despite the low material security of the family (Cederlöf 66). This is one of the main reasons that there are often fewer children in relatively richer families than in less affluent ones. It should also be considered that the birth rate depends very much on Cuban national and religious traditions and on the fact that these traditions are well preserved. In addition, the level of the average age of marriage, the strength of family foundations, the nature of settlement, and climatic features have an impact on population growth in this country.
Even before the mid-70s, more than half a million people left Cuba for various reasons, mainly to the United States, including about 0.3 million from Havana (Cederlöf 76). The reasons for the departure were different: rejection of the revolution, family circumstances, including reunification with relatives, many of whom left Cuba before the revolution. Among those who left the country were doctors, quite a few engineers, teachers, skilled workers. Since the departure procedure has been simplified, islanders go to work in other countries and even try to naturalize there. However, such an outflow of the population does not prevent the desire of representatives of other States to move to Cuba for permanent residence.
Emigration to Cuba is not as popular as to Europe or Asian countries. This is due to the fact that private business here is in its infancy, the salary level remains low, and the rules for the entry of foreigners are strict. According to the latest census, a large number of migrants live in Cuba, mainly descendants of Africans brought to the island. About 1% are from China, and about 400 Cuban Japanese are registered on the island of Pinos (Cederlöf 76). There are about the same number of heirs of the indigenous Indian population living in several regions. Immigrants from other countries (Germany, Britain and France) own the remaining 1% (Cederlöf 58). Most newcomers have been living in Cuba for years without a local passport. They use temporary or permanent registration.
Development & Health
In 1993, the turnover of foreign currency began in the country due to the lifting of the ban on it (León-de la O et al. 1). In 1996, three economically free zones were created in Cuba (León-de la O et al. 13). Only by 2002, the country’s GDP growth rate was able to cross the negative mark, amounting to 2% (León-de la O et al. 12). Since the late 1990s, the island’s close economic cooperation with Latin American countries, in particular, with Venezuela, has begun (León-de la O et al. 22). In 2011, the Cuban government allowed entrepreneurial activity on the island (León-de la O et al. 2). By 2013, more than 370 thousand entrepreneurs were registered (León-de la O et al. 2). As of 2016, Cuba’s GDP was $86 billion, with $7,500 per capita; the GDP growth rate is quite high and averages 5% per year (León-de la O et al. 18).
The Cuban economy is distinguished by a low unemployment rate – only 3% of the working-age population in 2018 did not have a permanent income (León-de la O et al. 6). More than half of working citizens (60%) are employed in the service sector, another 25% – in forestry and agriculture, as well as in fishing; the inflation rate in 2018 was 5% (León-de la O et al. 15). At the same time, only 2% of the population live below the poverty line (León-de la O et al. 7). Cuba is still a country dominated by communist ideology. A distinctive feature of the Cuban economy is the high level of State participation. The planned economic model still prevails in the country.
Today, Cuban medicine is considered one of the best in the world. Cuba is among the 41 countries whose child mortality rates are lower than in the United States (León-de la O et al. 11). Moreover, if the child mortality index on Liberty Island continues to decline every year, and currently Cuba ranks second on the American continent after Canada in this indicator (León-de la O et al. 18). Moreover, the impoverished country by European standards annually receives and successfully treats thousands of young patients from all over the world, and in most cases, the treatment is free of charge (León-de la O et al. 2). All medical care, up to the most complex operations, is provided free of charge. With any diseases, citizens can contact polyclinics that are equipped well enough. There are not so many polyclinics, but usually, there are several more medical centers in cities, and almost every district is supervised by a family doctor who usually lives here. According to statistics, 95% of the Cuban population is observed by family doctors (León-de la O et al. 7).
The first level of medical care includes public clinics, family doctor’s and nurse’s offices, dental clinics, and maternity hospitals. This level plays a significant role in the system since the main preventive tasks are solved here, and health promotion and early detection of numerous diseases are carried out. The second level of service is made up of general hospitals, which accept patients who need hospitalization and are referred from the first level of medical care. The third level is represented by specialized hospitals and institutes, which are under national control. These institutions are responsible for tackling some of the most difficult health problems facing the island’s population. In this sense, it must be added that there is a dual subordination since the provincial health institutions and health departments are also subordinate to the provincial people’s congresses. Similarly, this happens at the municipal level, where everyone is subordinate to the municipal assemblies of the people’s power, although methodologically, they are subordinate to the provincial health departments.
Cuba is quite limited in financial resources, but the country’s healthcare system often solves those problems that even American medicine cannot cope with (León-de la O et al. 19). The Ministry of Health considers preventive measures to be a priority for itself, that is, the medical system is built in such a way that it prevents diseases before they acquire serious stages that require complex operations or other expensive treatment. For example, all retired citizens of the country are given a ticket to a resort house every year to maintain their health and strength. In general, Cuban society has benefited greatly from the numerous health programs implemented with positive results. Among them, there are programs, such as maternal and child, antiviral, assistance to the elderly, the disabled, patients with infectious and non-communicable diseases, the fight against smoking and drug addiction, programs in the field of oncology, natural and traditional medicine, and vaccination. All of them have as their goal the improvement of the health of the population and, in order to achieve this goal, perform the corresponding tasks of monitoring and control.
Works Cited
Akismet. Costa-Rica-Wet-Season-Vs-Dry-Season. 2017. Mr. Crazy Kicks.
Batista, Celene, et al. “Improving A Decree Law About Coastal Zone Management in a Small Island Developing State: The Case of Cuba.” Marine Policy, vol. 101, no. 12, 2019, pp. 93-107.
Blanchet, Susan. “Cuba’s 6 Most Impressive Natural Parks.”Visagov, 2022.
Callesano, Salvatore, and Phillip Carter. “The Social Meaning of Spanish in Miami: Dialect Perceptions and Implications for Socioeconomic Class, Income, and Employment.” Latino Studies, vol. 16, no. 12, 2018, pp. 65-90.
Caraway, Rose. “The Greening of Cuba: A Case Study in Religion and Permaculture in Santiago.” Journal of Contemporary Religion, vol. 35, no. 2, 2020, pp. 323- 339.
Cederlöf, Gustav. “The Revolutionary City: Socialist Urbanisation and Nuclear Modernity in Cienfuegos, Cuba.” Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 52, no. 7, 2020, pp. 53-76.
Gonzalez-Corzo, Mario. “Agricultural Reforms, Land Distribution, and Non-Sugar Agricultural Production in Cuba.” Studies in Agricultural Economics, vol. 121, no. 2, 2019, pp. 13-20.
Johnson, Candace. “The Virtues of Repression: Politics and Health in Revolutionary Cuba.” Health Policy and Planning, vol. 33, no. 6, 2018, pp. 758-759.
León-de la O, Dante, et al. “The Rise of Health Biotechnology Research in Latin America: A Scientometric Analysis of Health Biotechnology Production and Impact in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba and Mexico.” PLOS ONE, vol. 45, no. 28, 2020, pp. 1-25.
Maseda, B. 15 Stunning Photographs of Cuba That Will Make You Book a Trip Right Now. 2017. The Culture Trip.
Megna, Yoandri, et al. “Conservation of Aquatic Insects in Neotropical Regions: A Gap analysis Using Potential Distributions of Diving Beetles in Cuba.” Wiley, vol. 15, no. 6, 2021, pp. 2714-2725.
Smith, Jeffrey. “The Making of America’s Culture Regions.” The AAG Review of Books, vol. 6, no. 4, 2018, pp. 248-250.
Vidal-Alejandro, Pavel. “Cuban Macroeconomic Trends and The Pending Monetary Reform.” Cuban Studies, vol. 47, no. 16, 2019, pp. 277-294.
Worldometer. Map of Cuba (Physical). 2022. Worldometer.