Chapter 8
The discovery and development of Africa took place in several stages spaced apart in time; a group of different European states took part in its colonization. Therefore, the methods of administration, the legal regime, and the observance of human rights in the colonies differed. The first type of governing the colonies – “direct” control – was characteristic of the colonies of France, Portugal, Belgium, and Germany. It envisaged the creation of a centralized administrative system modeled on metropolitan countries with the concentration of power in European administrators – a rather positive notion as European governing system was better developed at the time (Fichter 25). Its main disadvantage was that it was aimed at non-recognition of existing local authorities in an effort to “Europeanize” and “civilize” African society. Great Britain, on the other hand, used “indirect” control and retained traditional African political institutions (Fichter 82). This provided more convenient contact for the colonizers with them and better mutual understanding. The leaders were given new powers, gradually turning into civil servants of the colonial administration. Thus, the pre-colonial structures were not preserved in their former form.
Global neo-colonialism set the task of eliminating the sovereignty of all countries of the planet outside the metropolis and turning them into colonies of a new type. The African regions, divided as former colonies of different countries, had to make separate decisions. No resources were devoted to strengthening the federal institutions of power, and thus, fragmentation still remains a problem for Africa (Smith and Young 297). There are too many small, non-viable states that are forced to maintain ties with the former mother countries, finding themselves under neo-colonial control (Nkang Ogar et al. 90). Although it may seem that there is a trend towards globalization and strengthening of economic and other ties, in Africa, this manifests itself as a concentration of ownership of national corporations of primarily Western countries.
Chapter 9
The Middle East is a rather diverse region, in which many variables such as religion, mentality, history, and cultural heritage affect the countries’ subsistence strategies. There are a lot of conflicts between ethnic minorities and states which find reflection in the control of trade and race for resources (Smith and Young 318). Nowadays, main paths to sustainability target the specific issues and tensions existing in the region. The first includes development of environment protection policies due to intense desertification of the region. Next refers to the mitigation of territorial and religious conflicts such as one between Israel and Palestine, as the tension in the region hampers the trade and threatens peace (Smith and Young 317). Another strategy aims at the further development of oil production and trade, with establishing policies for regulating the work processes and making them safer. It also targets the goal of nationalizing the oil resources so that the profits would go into strengthening and enriching the region instead of Western countries.
Chapter 10 and 11
Mongolia is well-known for its nomadic traditions that have persevered since ancient times, as the tribes populating it tended to constantly move, following their herds. The concept of Mongolian nomadism is similar in execution yet different in purpose from the one that emerged in Asia. Asian nomads took upon this lifestyle to develop new and strengthen existing trade routes, such as The Great Silk Road (Smith and Young 357). Another unique aspect of Mongolian culture is the people’s dedication to horses: there are many different techniques and traditions in regard to breeding, training, and portraying these animals. Genghis Khan’s success with conquering the neighboring lands came from the fact that he managed to organize a powerful and well-trained cavalry – the best in the region. The clan social structure that Khan’s regime supported is heavily similar to the one adopted by the Chinese philosophy of Confucianism and later, by Chinese royal dynasties (Smith and Young 361). Perhaps, one can even assume that Khan’s empire has somehow affected the processes of other cultures.
The literary traditions of Mongolians were inspired by the life of Genghis Khan and his achievements. Such notion also reminds of Chinese culture, in particular, of the cult of Mao Zedong – the Communist leader of the Shared Production Party during the early 20th century (Smith and Young 363). Another cultural point refers to the many specific rituals and traditions in the everyday life of Mongolians that refer to the attraction of good and prevention of bad omens and occurrences. Similar superficial beliefs can be found in all parts of Asian and Eastern region, since the nations that constitute them tended to have tribal and syncretic religions.
Next, the traditional clothes of Mongols have not changed very much since the age of the Great Mongolian Empire, and it reflects fully the nomadic lifestyle. Moreover, different tribes have specific patterns and colors representing their heritage. Again, the similarities with the African region are evidential due to the tribal and historical character of this cultural aspect. Finally, one of the most famous aspects of Mongolian culture is the traditional Mongol house – the yurt. A felt yurt is ideal for nomadic life, as it can be rolled up or out in about an hour and transferred with simple transport to a new location. Thus, the concept of comfortable but movable dwelling has transferred into other Asian and Eastern cultures that also employed nomadic lifestyle: Kazakh, Kyrghyz, and Turk.
Works Cited
Fichter, James R. British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle East: Connected Empires across the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Nkang Ogar, Joseph, et al. “Archetype of Globalization: Illusory Comfort of Neo-Colonialism in Africa.” International Journal of Humanities and Innovation (IJHI), vol. 2, no. 3, 2019, pp. 90–95., Web.
Smith, Sheldon, and Philip Young. Cultural Anthropology – Understanding a World in Transition (2nd Edition). BVT Publishing, 2012.