Introduction
The differences between rates of progress between various societies in the world have whetted the appetite of scholars. They have developed an interest to explain this phenomenon that seems to have persisted from earlier societies to contemporary ones. Theories explaining these differences are as many and as varying as there are scholars. They all seem to compete to convince the reader as to the reason why human history is marked by varying degrees of development. Some theories argue that this can be attributed to genetic factors, where those societies with superior genetics dominate the others. This is closely related to the theory of natural selection, where nature favors those that are suitably suited to exist within it.
However, historians like Michael Cook, Marvin Harris, and Jared Diamond have come up with another line of reasoning that accounts for these differences. They believe that the environment has much to do with the rate of progress in any society than genetics or any other such factors. Their theories are based on the fact that they have observed the planet is made of varying geographical and climatic conditions. Societies living within a particular geographical location or environment share the same traits, and those occupying the most favorable conditions dominate the other societies in the world.
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies
In 1997, Jared Diamond published the book expressing his views as to the reasons why some particular societies in the world dominate others. He is particularly intent on explaining the reasons why Eurasian society has dominated the world since the agrarian revolution (Diamond, 1997). He hypothesizes that the geographical features of the Eurasian continent favored rapid civilization over other continents of the planet. The climate was favorable for the domestication of crops, coupled with the fact that there were beneficial crops to domesticate (Diamond, 1997, p. 34). For example, wheat and barley were nutritious grains that were easy to domesticate. The climate of the continent was largely uniform, and this ensured that the populations were able to migrate and adapt their crops to different parts of the continent. The abundance of many animals that were easily tamed added to the advancement of this society ahead of others that had few or no animals to domesticate at all. The interaction between nation-states ensured that competition took place and technological development was spurred. Stagnation was averted (Diamond, 1997, p. 33). The competition between the nation-states ensured that political sophistication took place. On this background, it was relatively easier for the Eurasian continent to conquer other continents when they encountered them.
Harris Marvin’s Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture
In this 1974 book, Harris tries to discern why various cultures around the world possess particular belief patterns and cultural traits that will be considered strange or unfathomable in other cultures (Harris, 1974, p.3). He gives various examples, including the Hindu’s view of cows as sacred animals, and Islam’s view of pigs as dirty creatures that should not be consumed. An American finds it hard to understand how a poor Hindu farmer will die of starvation while fat cows populate the land (Harris, 1974, p. 3). Harris intends to prove that these cultural traits are riddles to outsiders, and at best, they remain unsolved riddles, since there are no ready answers to explain them fully. He hypothesizes that these differences are brought about by environmental considerations. The landscape of the Middle East, given the ravages wrought on it by deforestation and desertification, cannot successfully hold a large number of pigs. As such, Muslims find it easy to shun the animals and not eat them at all out of these economic and environmental concerns. However, it is hard to discern why this society will pick on a pig, leaving other animals such as cows. These are some of the riddles Harris says lack ready answers (Harris, 1974, p. 8).
Michael Cook’s A Brief History of the Human Race
As the title suggests, this is a brief history of the human race within the past ten thousand years. Cook tries to discern why the history took the particular course that it did, and not an alternate path. He tries to discern why the West seems to dominate and influence the rest of the world.
The occurrences from ten thousand years to the present in the world’s history are so vast, such that it is hard to capture them in a single volume. This is more so in a volume of fewer than four hundred pages, the case with this book. It is in this light that Cook, in introducing the book, says that it is going to be a “deliberately sketchy and involuntarily patchy” (Cook, 2003, p. 3) undertaking. And this is just what happens in the book. He tries to capture the major civilizations of each continent, delving into the particulars that most historians seem to ignore. This is from the American’s Quipu to Egyptian’s Shabtis.
Cook was inspired in no small part by Diamond’s book that has been highlighted above. He concurred with Diamond to the effect that environment and geography have a major role in the determination of history and development. This is why Cook uses maps conspicuously in his analysis. Each regional analysis is preceded by a map detailing the prevailing geography and environment.
Summary and Analysis of Major Conclusions in these Books
As indicated above, each of the writers presents their hypothesis as to why they think the cultures of the world differ, and how the environment has affected the history of the world. They support their hypothesis by several points and claims, which they make and try to support through the presentation of evidence.
Jared Diamond’s Hypothesis and Evidence
This author tries to explain why the Eurasian continent ended up dominating large swathes of cultures from the agricultural civilization. He attributes this domination to favorable environmental conditions.
The major question that seems to occupy Diamond’s mind is how the European nations were able to conquer other societies. Not only were they able to conquer, but they were able to maintain dominance even though they were out-numbered in most cases. He says that they were able to carry out this through three means: guns, germs, and steel, hence the title of the book. They had superior weapons. As such, when they were confronted by the other communities they were trying to conquer, they easily vanquished them. This is what Diamond refers to as Gun in the title of his book. For example, a native Indian from America will try to confront the colonialists with bows and arrows. Small bands of Europeans, using guns, were able to take down armies of Indians who were armed with bows and arrows (Diamond, 1997, p. 67). Europeans were carriers of many diseases that were fatal to the locals whenever they came into contact with them. They had resistance to these diseases, and they only acted as carriers. However, the locals whose bodies and immunity systems had never encountered such diseases were easily killed by them. This is what he calls Germs in the book’s title.
The governments of European nations were centralized and sophisticated. This was because they had been improved by interactions with other nation-states that competed, and as such, the governing structures had to be strengthened for the states to survive. Nationalism and strong military organizations were possible, and this aspect gave the Europeans an upper hand as they interacted with the locals. This is Steel in Diamond’s title.
The guns, germs, and steel that the European used to conquer the world is explainable in terms of the prevailing environment in this continent.
Guns
Guns and military sophistication can be attributed to improved technology in this continent. Technological improvements can be attributed to interactions between the different cultures found within the continent. The geographical terrain of Europe is such that nation-states were able to form and were separated from each other by natural barriers such as mountains and rivers (Diamond, 1997, p. 72). This been the case, they were able to interact, such that there was the competition between them. Each state was forced to review and improve its governing policies from time to time so that they are not left behind by the others. Lack of change and updating policies was not only risky for making the state to lag behind but it could easily be replaced by their neighbors (Diamond, 1997, p.45). For example, if the neighbors developed sophisticated weapons and the state did not improve theirs, they will be defeated in war and as such, replaced.
Contrast this with other civilized societies in continents such as Asia. The geographical condition of this area, characterized by large mountains and vast bodies of water, made it possible for large dynasties to develop in isolation. These dynasties, though big and powerful in their own rights, had no contact with the rest of the society. As such, there was no impetus for them to change and improve their policies. Technology in these communities is more or less stagnated (Diamond, 1997). The American Indian communities were isolated from other communities by the Rocky Mountains. African communities were isolated from each other by the deserts and dense rain forests. This meant that the technologies of these communities were primitive. When the Europeans came with their guns, it was easy for them to conquer.
Germs
European communities were in constant contact with others on the continent, given that it was easy for them to move from one region of the continent to the other. As such, their bodies were exposed to many illnesses, and continual exposure led to enhanced immunity. It reached a point where they could host the germs in their bodies without getting sick (Diamond, 1997. p. 56).
However, this was not the case with the communities on other continents. These communities lived more or less in total isolation. Their bodies were used to the local illnesses. When the Europeans came, they carried with them diseases from Europe, such as syphilis, and the locals died in large numbers from these infections. The Europeans were able to conquer as a result, even if they were outnumbered. They were not infected by the local illnesses. The only place that challenged the Europeans in terms of illnesses was Africa. Many settlers were killed by tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
Steel
The sophistication in governance can also be traced to the ability of the European states to interact with each other. From this interaction, strong policies leading to strong governments were established. The competition between the states ensured that only the strongest governments dominated. As such, France replaced Spain, but it was later to be replaced by Britain (Diamond, 1997, p. 34). These governments were centralized, and strong militaries were formed as a result. Britain then went to places like Africa where the different communities had different and segmented leadership. The leadership structures were weak and easily overthrown.
The climate of the continent had for long been favoring this region as far as development was concerned. The relative uniformity of the climate from one region of the continent to the other made it easier for people to migrate with their crops. The grains could be stored for longer than the fruits of tropical Africa. They were more nutritious and easy to cultivate than the corn of America. Africa had varying climatic conditions, from deserts to rainforests. Africans were also in contact with vicious wild animals like lions and elephants, which could not be domesticated.
The points made by Diamond are very clear. This is given the fact that he presents them in simple terms such as guns, germs, and steel. The fact that he can support his points using verifiable evidence makes him very convincing. However, some questions are left on the reader’s mind like an after-taste that will not go away. For example, why does the West continue to dominate the rest of the world? This is given that industrialization has brought the communities of the world into close contact more than before, and as such, the domination of the west would have been questioned given the enlightenment of the former colonies.
Harris Marvin’s Hypothesis and Evidence
This man talked of many cultural patterns like wars and persecution of witches, and he was of the view that they were all adopted by the communities to the environment. When the peasants wanted to rise against the lords during the serfdom era, the authorities had to come up with a diversion. And this was found in the name of witches. The pope authorized the witches, who were also threatening the authority of the church, to be hunted down and killed (Harris, 1974, p. 48). The church and the government were able to pacify the citizens, and they had no qualms in paying taxes and obeying the rules of the same. Wars are an adaptation by the communities to check overpopulation and preserve the environment. Harris gives the case of Indian tribes that would fight over the forests, and the tribe that was defeated was thrown out of their region. The region was then conquered by the winners and left furrow for many years (Harris, 1974, p.45). This way, deforestation, and eventual desertification were averted.
Marvin’s arguments are largely clear, especially when he gives the reader pieces of evidence from historical records. This also makes him more persuasive. However, he would have helped the reader understand history more if only he tried to give answers to the riddles that he presents. For example, why would the Indians worship a cow and not a goat?
Michael Cook’s Opinion
Most of Cooks’s work is not about theorizing but presenting facts as they are. All he had to do was go back to history books and look up the records available for the past ten thousand years. It is from these records that he can come up with the findings that he presents. A case in point is the marriage procedures of aboriginal Aranda in Australia (Cook, 2003, p. 40). Another is the way the Mayans calculate their mathematics to come up with their calendar. From these facts, Cook can prove that the human race is a diverse one, and the historical development has been diverse as well.
Comparison between the Three Books
Some insights from Diamond’s book help one understand the arguments that Cook is presenting. One can understand why Cook will include those maps in the book, and the climatic conditions of the region are made clear as far as its effects on the community are concerned. In addition, Diamond’s book helps one understand the arguments that are made by Harris in his writings. This is even though Harris wrote much earlier than Diamond. His explanation as to the role that the environment plays when civilizations are engaging in wars is well contextualized in Diamond’s writings.
The effect that the environment plays in shaping history is one factor that makes these books seem to be in total agreement. They share the fact that the environment is a major player in the course that history takes. They hold that differences between the various societies do not have a lot to do with the attributes of the individuals, but the environment.
Conclusion
Largely, the authors can achieve the goals that they set for themselves. Diamond can prove how the environment affects history, the same with Cook and Harris. However, the few questions that they do not address are the only setbacks to their efforts. Nevertheless, it can be said that the books are successes in their rights. The books are especially helpful in understanding cultural diversity, multiculturalism, and globalization. The environment and geographical terrain of a region affect the interaction between communities, affecting globalization in turn. It also separates communities, making them develop cultural traits specific to them. When the geography is conquered, at last, different communities can interact leading to multiculturalism.
Various ideas can be integrated into one’s teaching from these books. The major one is the fact that environmental and geographical differences lead to differing cultures and levels of development in many societies in the world.
References
Cook, M. (2003). A Brief History of the Human Race. New York: Norton Books.
Diamond, j. Guns, germs, and steel. The fate of human societies. New York: Norton Books.
Harris, M. (1974). Cows, pigs, wars, and witches: The riddles of culture. New York: Random House.