In Chapter 4, key terms include paleontology, remote sensing, fossils, systematic survey excavation, taphonomy, relative dating, stratigraphy, paleoanthropology, absolute dating, dendrochronology, molecular anthropology, bone biology, paleopathology, anthropometry, informed consent, and others.
The list of all methods: analyzing material remains, drawing on microscopic evidence, starch grain analysis, remote sensing, work with fossils, different excavation techniques, systematic survey, and flotation.
The Flintstones are the most well-known Neandertals in the modern world, but they have been misrepresented. According to Kottak, these ancient individuals lacked chins, had slanting foreheads, and were with heavy brow ridges (149). It means that real Neandertals were noticeably different compared to modern people.
The discovery in southwestern France helped create a popular stereotype about Neandertal cave dwellers. The fossil was a skeleton that allowed for depicting those ancient people as “apelike brutes who had trouble walking upright” (Kottak 149). However, further analysis revealed that it was an aged person with arthritic bones. This case demonstrates that it is not reasonable to generate conclusions from a small sample size.
Chapter 5 highlights five species, including H. rudolfensis, H. habilis, H. Erectus, H. heidelbergensis, and the Neandertals. It is believed that these species appeared in this exact order.
As of 2015, there were three significant discoveries concerning early hominins in Africa. The earliest stone tools at Lomekwi, Kenya, are considered the first of them. The second one refers to “the discovery at Ethiopia’s Ledi-Geraru site of a hominin jawbone fragment with five teeth” (Kottak 150). The third discovery relates to South Africa’s Rising Star cave that hosted fifteen individuals, from infants to the elderly.
The process of obtaining the fossils from Rising Star cave was exciting and adventurous. The evidence by Kottak demonstrates that these archeologists needed to overcome fundamental challenges to achieve successful outcomes (152). I would also be willing to participate in such an event because it would provide me with a valuable and unforgettable experience.
The discovery was of significance because of a few aspects. Firstly, it provides the field of paleoanthropology with precious fossils to analyze the hominin species. Secondly, the discovery demonstrated a divergent approach to studying the fossils and publishing the results. Typically, it had taken years for discovery teams to deal with these processes. However, Lee Berger decided to make the findings available worldwide for study.
The person has to consider numerous factors when reconstructing the face of an H. Naledi. It is so because comparative anatomy issues of working with facial dissection of humans, apes, and orangutans are involved in this process (National Geographic 00:00:50-00:00:57). Furthermore, the reconstruction author should have drawn sufficient attention to the nose, ears, and skin color, while some of these decisions are based on his guesses. This complicated process leads to the creation of a face that combines both human-like and primitive traits.
The H. Erectus species were separated from other hominins because of their specific ecological niche that promoted hunting. Furthermore, Kottak admits that this species witnessed a significant improvement in technology, creating more sophisticated tools that included instruments for smashing bones, digging for tubers, improving food preparation techniques, and others (155). As a result, more developed tools led to improved diets that eased the burden on chewing muscles, contributing to smaller back teeth.
It can sometimes be challenging to state the order of progression. However, the chart by Tuttle is useful in this case because it explicitly demonstrates who came first. Thus, it means that H. rudolfensis could be considered earlier compared to H. Erectus.
Specific anatomical features can be associated with the change above. They include bipedalism, upright posture, extended hip and knee joints, large muscle masses, and others (Tuttle par. 8-9).
Behavioral modernity is a concept that involves being fully human in behavior and anatomy. It also focuses on cultural creativity and symbolic thinking since the two distinguish anatomically modern humans (AMHs).
Multiple theories suggest when and how early AMHs achieved behavioral modernity. Richard Klein relies on cave paintings from Europe and is the leading advocate of the traditional view stating that it happened 45,000 years ago; however, older findings challenge the theory. Henshilwood focused on bone awls and weapon points from South Africa’s Blombos Cave and claimed that behavioral modernity was obtained more than 70,000 years ago. Brooks and Yellen used bone harpoon points from Congo’s Katanda region to state that the process took place 90,000-80,000 years ago. Marean identified small stone bladelets that could make spears; they date back to 164,000 B.P. (Kottak 176). Thus, this information means that the discovery of more ancient findings reveals the issues of a previous theory and refutes it.
The prerequisites to globalization are the settlement of the six continents by AMHs, the Neolithic Revolution, the rise of civilizations, the European Age of Discovery, and financial development.
More active human migrations became the most significant changes that lead to globalization.
Anthropologists are trying to track those changes by constructing phylogenetic trees. They can rely on mitochondrial DNA that is transmitted through the female line and the Y chromosome that is rendered from fathers to sons.
Works Cited
“Exclusive: Building the Face of a Newly Found Ancestor.” YouTube, uploaded by National Geographic, 2015. Web.
Kottak, Conrad P. Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
Tuttle, Russell H. “Human Evolution.” Britannica, 2021. Web.