Introduction
Anthropology is the science that is devoted to studying humanity and natural science. The science of anthropology gives importance to the cultural aspects of a race and there is an attempt to make a cross-cultural comparison. Anthropologists devote their studies in closely examining the culture, social norms and behavior of various ethnic groups by ‘participant observation’ which the anthropologist lives with a ethnic groups and studies their behavior. The study assumed significance from the 15th century onwards when European countries took up colonization of other countries about which very little was known. It has been argued that anthropology in the guise of furthering the knowledge of human behavior in different ethnic societies was actually an attempt by European powers to dominate less advanced people of Africa, Asia and South America. The colonial powers needed the natives of these countries to accept them as masters or as their superiors so that the natives could be subdued. The best way to subdue and get their cooperation was to study their behavior and social norms and then attempt to dominate them. Whatever the alleged motives, it should be remembered that anthropologists have left a rich legacy and detailed studies of many ethnic groups through the world. This paper examines the work of Evan-Pritchard who worked among the Neurs of Sudan and wrote a trilogy of three books. This paper examines one of the books ‘The Neur’ and attempts to create an understanding of the works of this author, his motivation and provides a critique of his work.
About Ethnography
Clifford (1990) defines ethnography as the genre of anthropology that utilizes field work as the basis for detailed observation and description of human societies. The genre evolved from the medieval observations of travelers and tradesmen who traveled to different lands and wrote down their observation of the people. The author places emphasis on proper fieldwork as the discipline of anthropology. Commenting at length on ethnography Clifford has pointed out a number of methods that can be either used individually or concurrently to create academically acceptable studies. The methods are: First hand direct daily behavior observation by participant behavior; interviews and conversations that would have different levels of formality; genealogical method where marriage, kinship, descent are recorded by using trees and symbols; using key consultants as helpers to find specific information about the life in communities; carrying out in depth interviews of subjects; discovering and understanding local beliefs and perceptions; using a problem oriented research method; carrying out longitudinal research where an area is studied for a long duration and using the team research method.
Evans-Pritchard and his ethnography âThe Nuerâ
Evans (1940) in the first of his trilogy âThe Nuer: A description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic peopleâ has provided a very detailed perspective into the customs and practices of the Neurs. These people were inhabitants of Sudan and while the British were successful in colonizing other regions, the received hostile treatment when the approached the Neurs. Professor Evans Pritchard was at the time working with the Azande tribe of Egypt and the British government asked him to work with the Neurs and attempt to coax them to side with the British in the Second World War. This fact has been criticized by other researchers, many who claim that Evans work is superficial and limited to fieldwork of individuals and their perceptions and not the whole community. However, it can be seen from reading of his works that Evans did undertake very detailed studies of the Neurs and this was published in his book (Rosaldo, 1986).
The book by Evans has six chapters that examine various characteristics of the Neurs. The six chapters are Interest in Cattle; Oecology; Time and Space; The Political System; The Lineage System and The Age-Set System. Evans attempted to capture in detail the Nuer character which is consistent with their environment termed the oecology and their pastoral activity. He has attempted to capture the essence of the Neurs and depicted their characteristics such as democratic values, fierce pride, warrior spirit and their will to be free.
The Neurs did not have any printed currency and all their transaction, social standing and wealth was based on the number of cattle they owned. Cattle provided milk, cow dung and other needs and being nomadic people, the Neurs adjusted their lifestyle to suit their cattle. Cattle herds belonged to a family and all members had a share in the wealth. When one of the daughters was married, she took along some cattle with her as a form of dowry and to increase her stature in her husbandâs house. Cattle were also used in various rituals and offerings to dedicate the spirits of the Neurs ancestors. Even the names of people referred to some form and color of their favorite cattle (Evans, Chapter I).
The Nuer had different concepts of seasons and according to them, the year had two seasons – rains and dry seasons. During rains, the spent their days in inland villages and agriculture was their main activity along with tending cattle, In the dry season when the lands were parched, they camped along rivers so that their cattle had sufficient to eat and drink. During summer, the Neurs took up fishing, hunting and gathering to feed themselves (Evans, Chapter 2). This structure implied that people from different lineages and interacted with each other.
Evans implies that there was a simple social structure and the Neurs were transiting from the purely lineage system to the territorially based polity. Evans comments “they consider that horticulture is an unfortunate necessity involving hard and unpleasant labor and not an ideal occupation, and they tend to act on the conviction that the larger the herd [of cattle] the smaller need be the garden” (Evans, Chapter 4).
Living in their own primitive world, the war and colonialism did not effect the Neurs, until the government started regarding them as hostile and started bombing their cattle and executing their prophets. Evans entered in a climate of severe hostility where he was treated as an enemy and as an outsider. In Chapter V, The Lineage system, Evans speaks of the extreme reluctance shown by the Neurs in revealing their name and this is seen from the following excerpt:
” A Neur rarely talks about his lineage as distinct from his community and in contrast to other lineages which form part of it, outside a ceremonial context. I have watched a Neur who knew precisely what I wanted trying on my behalf to discover from a stranger the name of his lineage. He often found great difficulty in making h=the man understand the information required of him for Neur think generally in terms of local divisions and of the relationships between them and an attempt to discover lineage affiliations apart from their community relations and outside a ceremonial context, generally led to misunderstanding in the opening stages of an inquiry. A Lineage is thok mac, the hearth or thok dwiel, the entrance to the hut or one may talk of kar, a branch” (Evans, Chapter V).
Critic of the Book
The work by Evans while it is seminal and a classic does not speak of how social interactions with other kinâs and lineages and other villages occur and these are very important when understanding the cognitive and normative behavior of the Neurs. Evans came to study the Neurs at a cataclysmic moment when World War II was underway and the government had started to purge the villagers. As pointed out by Strauss (1993), ethnography has its limits and cannot reveal the true culture of people who are in a state of upheaval. A terror stricken community, as mentioned by Evans himself when he says âthe Neur was reluctant to reveal his name, no doubt terror stricken by the atrocities unleashed by the government and he probably felt that I wanted his name so that he could be punishedâ. There are even suggestions that he deliberately downgraded the importance of some âleopard skin chiefsâ so that they would not be hunted down by vindictive governments. At that point, no one was sure when the war would end and who would win and it is suggested that Evans may have committed some deliberate errors to protect the people. While this is a humane gesture, it is not good research and may mislead other researchers (Kuper, 1988). Such instances cast some doubts on an otherwise good work
Conclusion
The paper has briefly discussed anthropology and ethnography and examined the various tools used in conducting field work. The work by Evans has been examined in detail and important themes of various chapters has been provided. The paper has also presented a brief critic of the book and attempted to explain some omissions that the author may have taken to protect the Neurs from purges but such acts have raised doubts about the veracity of the work. The paper would help students to obtain a brief and concise knowledge of Evans and his work among the Neurs.
References
Clifford James. 1990. Notes on (Field) notes in Field notes: The Makings of Anthropology (Eds) Sanjek Roger. Cornell University Press.
Evans-Pritchard. 1940. The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Kuper Adam. 1988. The idea of primitive society. Rutledge publications.
Rosaldo Renato. 1986. From the door of his tent: The fieldworker and the Inquisitor. (Eds) Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, James Clifford. University of California Press.
Strauss Sarah. 1993. Locating Yoga: Ethnography and transnational practice. Chicago, Illinois.