Introduction and Overview
Riebock (2012) indicates that sports are a critical part of the global entertainment culture. As a result, there has been increased participation of women in sports over the past decades. In addition, the traditional mass media paid little or no regard to the participation of women in sports (Eastman & Billings, 2001). The increase in the number of women in sports led to increased media coverage. However, the coverage of sportswomen in media is still characterized by gender stereotyping and sexualization ( Muir, 2012).
The aim of the current research is to assess the role of mass media in stereotyping females in sports. The paper looks at the historical origins of the topic in literature. Additionally, there are three research questions analyzed using past studies undertaken on the topic. First, are there gender stereotypes portrayed by the mass media in the representation of women in sports? Second, does feminism propaganda exist in mass media portrayal of women in sports? Lastly, has the media culture changed in its portrayal of women as the weaker sex in sports?
Historical background
Although female participation in sports was introduced centuries back, the traditional society failed to recognize women in competitions (Eastman & Billings, 2001). It was not until the establishment of Title IX in 1972 that women started being represented in sports. As a result, the international sporting sector made significant steps in encouraging female participation in sports (Riebock, 2012). This advancement came at a time when women were fighting to be recognized in politics, education and politics sectors that were majorly male dominated. Similarly, the coverage of these women in mass media was discriminatory as their skills were hardly recognized. It was not until the mid-1970 that scholars began to research on the underrepresentation and marginalization of sportswomen in mass media.
Pedersen (2002) notes that majority of the initial academic studies on the topic focused on the analysis of newspapers and their depiction of female athletes. The author also acknowledges the limited research studies that focused on the interaction between feminism and the role of the media in sports coverage in the 1970’s. Reid and Soley (1979) undertook one of the initial newspaper content analysis on the topic. Consequently, the authors found that most of the newspaper articles had focused more on men than women in sports. The scope of the initial research studies on gender segregation of women in sports focused on both domestic and international sporting activities.
Furthermore, they focused on varying levels of competitions ranging from intercollegiate sports to national levels. Pedersen (2002) also acknowledges that majority of past research findings reported positive correlation between mass media coverage in sports and gender stereotyping. In summary, it is clear that the topic has elicited lengthy academic debates and research. In addition, it is important to undertake future research on the topic to establish whether the original trends have changed.
State of the Question
According to Riebock (2012), female participation in professional, Olympic, and interscholastic sports has reached unparalleled highs in the past decade. Additionally, there have been an increased number of female champions in various sports. Despite these developments, the mass media coverage of these women still lags behind the representation of sportsmen. Moreover, in the cases that the women are represented, they are stereotyped and attached to feminist propaganda.
Sports fans seem to be focusing more on female sporting activities as a means of entertainment. Additionally, the discontented fans have been affected by the reports of rampant steroid use and player’s union lockouts among sportsmen. One would expect that the media perceptions and attitudes would also change based on the needs of their fans. On the contrary, women athlete’s coverage continues to be sexualized and there is more presentation of men in sports in both traditional and digital media forms. The mass media focuses less on the female talents and more on their sex appeal. Based on these trends, three major research questions have been investigated in literature
- Are there gender stereotypes portrayed by the mass media in the representation of women in sports?
- Does feminism propaganda exist in mass media’s portrayal of women in sports?
- Has the media culture changed in its portrayal of women as the weaker sex in sports?
This section analyzes past research studies that relate to the different research questions. In specific, the authors, methodology, and the findings of the specific studies are outlined.
Are there gender stereotypes portrayed by the mass media in the representation of women in sports?
In reference to Ma (2008), the mass media has been a medium of transmitting stereotypical and feminist perceptions of women in sports. Thus, an analysis of the image of female in sports is important in understanding the norms of the mass media and the values about gender perception. In this regard, Ma’s (2008) research objective was to assess the presence of gender stereotyping in pictorial sports and analyze the different kind of stereotypes that were commonly reported.
The data collection involved gathering of sports sample photos and captions from the print media. Upon analysis, the researcher discovered massive imbalance regarding to the representation of both men and women in sports. Specifically, men seemed to be portrayed more in comparison to women. In respect to gender stereotypes, expressions such as ‘sexy’, and ‘hot’ were used to describe the women in sports. In conclusion, the research found out that mass media glorified the traditional roles of women and displayed them as sex objects. In another research by Eastman and Billings (2001), the authors focused on both racial and gender stereotyping in sports.
The authors videotaped all college basketball tournaments aired by ESPN, NBC, CBS, and ABC for a period of two months. They assessed the representation of men and women in these games and discovered that women basketball players were greatly stereotyped by the reporters. The focus seemed more on their physical attractiveness rather than their prowess in the sport.
Farzalipour et al. (2012) interviewed media experts about the portrayal of women in mass media with regard to gender stereotyping. The interviews were conducted through semi-structured questionnaires. Based on the analysis, the experts admitted that mass media had not transformed its analysis of sportswomen based on their gender despite the increase in number of females in sports. Shaller’s (2006) research objective was to critic the underrepresentation and sexualization of women in sports. The author warns that the perceptions of the media are easily passed on to the audiences.
The author analyzed 281 sports covers in a number of print media to assess the depiction of women. The analysis revealed that women were rarely represented in the print media. In the few times that they were represented, it was in an inactive or a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, King (2007) undertook a research to examine the portrayal of gender in Olympic Games held since 1948. The research concentrated on content analysis of articles and photographs in print media in Britain. The results showed that women were under-represented in mass media. Contrary to previous findings, this author reported the inexistence of gender stereotypes in the representation of women in sports.
Does feminism propaganda exist in mass media portrayal of women in sports?
Lee (2009) examined the concept of ‘red feminism’ in the portrayal of sportswomen in communist media. The author defines ‘red feminism’ as a notion developed by communists in an effort to liberate women from the old-fashioned gender roles in the society. The research focused on mass media display of female boxers in North Korea. It analyzed media reports in both prints an electronic media forms. The findings revealed that the communist media was active in promoting red feminism to ensure that they were in line with the communist party political ideologies. Therefore, this portrayal lacked genuineness and was contrary to the actual status of women within the society.
Thorpe (2008) investigated the mass media and notion of feminism among women participating in snowboarding. It was an empirical review of past literature on the topic. The author noted the presence of various discursive constructs of femininity that relate to these women. Based on the concepts of power, knowledge, and discourse in feminism, the author notes that the mass media has played a role in the portrayal of feminism among female snowboarders.
The research recommends the expansion of women only media forms to promote proper portrayal of women in sports. Additionally, Roth and Basow (2004) analyze the concept of feminism in sports, and how it affects the depiction of sportswomen in mass media. The authors applied a literature review technique to obtain information required in the analysis. The authors note that the United States media and the society continue to portray women as the weaker sex and their physical power and skills in sports are undermined. The research also argues that the increase in the number of females in sports has not had an impact on women physical feminist emancipation. Despite the liberation elicited by the feminist movement, there is negative portrayal of the physical power of women in sports.
Has the media culture changed in its portrayal of women as the weaker sex in sports?
Kian and Hardin (2009) attempt to determine whether the traditional gendering roles of the mass media have changed over time. In addition, the study established whether the gender of the sports writers affected the portrayal of the women in sports. The authors performed a content analysis and assessed articles published in the New York Times, USA Today, CBS Sports Line, and ESPN. The analysis revealed that the traditional gendered perspective has not entirely changed as females in sports continue to be sexualized. There is also less focus on their skills and abilities in sports.
The study also showed that women journalists portrayed women in sports more positively than the male counterparts and tended to focus more on the skills of the sportswomen. In another content analysis performed by Bakan (2014) among Turkish mass media, the author’s objective was to determine whether the norms of the media had changed following the feminism era. The author found that majority of the sports columns in the media emphasized gender roles in their portrayal of women in sports. Lastly, Buysse and Embser-Herbert (2004), note that gender differentiation has been the traditional focus on the mass media in portraying women in sports. Similarly, the authors performed a content analysis of photographs relating to intercollege athletes. Women athletes were displayed as less active based on their poses on the photographs. The authors note that the media has a long way to go in changing its mentality about the participation of women in sports.
Discernable trends and future directions
In regard to the articles analyzed, it is clear that women are still stereotyped by mass media. Majority of the studies analyzed employed content analysis technique in their methodology. Although some of the researchers have reported gender stereotypes in coverage, others argue that the negative view of mass media has changed. In summary, it is clear that the topic requires more studies to determine whether these trends are will change in the future.
Conclusion
The participation of women in sports has increased drastically in the past decade. Prior to the introduction of Title IX in 1972, women sports competitions were hardly recognized (Riebock, 2012). As a result of the increased participation in sports, media coverage has also increased. However, past research has discovered that the coverage is characterized by gender stereotyping and sexualizing of the sportswomen. Additionally, most media coverage does not seem genuine but rather attempts to fulfil the concept of feminism. In summary, the analysis reveals that the media’s ‘gender stereotyping culture’ has not changed much over the years. In this respect, there is need for further research to determine whether these trends will change in the future.
References
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