Introduction
Native Americans have been subjected to centuries of oppression, marginalization, and discrimination in American society. From the oppressive assimilation policies of the late 19th century to the fight for self-determination in recent decades, Native Americans have strived for recognition and respect in the face of adversity. This paper will examine four critical events in the history of Native Americans, from 1877 to the present, and their impact on the culture and identity of Native Americans, highlighting the importance of self-determination in protecting the rights and dignity of the Indigenous people of the United States.
The Dawes Act of 1887: Assimilation and Land Loss
One of the events that demonstrates the extreme power of assimilation and land theft by the US is the Dawes Act of 1887. As such, it is a federal law that created a system of allotment and assimilation for Native Americans. This Act allotted land in severalty to individuals to assimilate Native Americans into the larger American society. The statute specified that up to a quarter of a section might be allocated to family heads, an eighth to every single adult over 18, an eighth to each orphaned child under 18, and a sixteenth to each additional single person under 18 (Dawes Act, 2017, para. 4-6).
The Act also offered religious societies and organizations the option to occupy the land for religious or educational purposes, and the laws of descent and partition of the state where the land was located were to apply to the allotments. Thus, the Dawes Act of 1887 suggests that the US had the power to assimilate and take land from Native Americans through the creation of a system of allotment and assimilation.
This significant Act had an enormous and far-reaching impact on Native Americans, completely transforming the way of life and culture of countless tribes and nations. The land allotment system divided the traditional tribal lands into individual plots of land. At the same time, the assimilation aspect of the Act removed Native Americans from their traditional cultures and forced them to adopt habits that were considered civilized, such as taking on full-time jobs and adopting Christianity (Dennis et al., 2016; Barnes & Bowles, 2014).
Through the Dawes Act, Native Americans were stripped of their ancestral lands and made to live on reservations. Additionally, Native Americans were subject to the vagaries of the US government, which sought to control their resources and limit their access to the land (Dawes Act, 2017). This event caused a drastic loss of land, culture, and autonomy for Native Americans, resulting in Indigenous people being oppressed and having to fight for acceptance and dignity in American society.
The Act also had a direct effect on the land itself. It gave the President the authority to purchase and release portions of the reservation to the US and to dispose of the land to settlers (Dennis et al., 2016). This option led to the loss of many Native American lands and resources, as well as the destruction of native ecosystems and wildlife.
As a result, the Dawes Act of 1887 is an example of the challenges of assimilation that Native Americans have had to face. It has caused a drastic shift in the traditional way of life of many Native American tribes (Dennis et al., 2016). Ultimately, this Act has had a lasting impact on Native American culture and history, and its effects are still felt today.
The Meriam Report and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
The next event concerns the Meriam Report, a comprehensive and detailed study into the plight of Native Americans in the US. The report was conducted by the Institute for Government Research, led by Lewis Meriam, a prominent social scientist and civil engineer (Dennis et al., 2016). The team of experts, led by Meriam, visited Indian reservations and interviewed multiple individuals. They also gathered information from government officials, historians, and other sources.
Their findings were then compiled and published in the Meriam Report, which outlined the poverty, health issues, and other problems faced by Native Americans. It documented the effects of the government’s allotment policy and its failure to provide adequate health care, education, and economic assistance to Native American communities (Dennis et al., 2016).
The report highlighted the need for greater autonomy and self-government. It also made recommendations for improving the living conditions of Native Americans. The findings of the Meriam Report have been used to shape many of the policies and initiatives for Native American tribes in the years that followed.
As such, the findings of the Meriam Report led to the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. The Act reversed the allotment policy and provided for tribal self-government (Taylor, 1980). Moreover, the Act also authorized the formation of tribal councils, the establishment of tribal courts, and provided for the development of tribal constitutions. It enabled the purchase of additional land for Native American communities.
Finally, the Act also established the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which was tasked with supervising Indian affairs and protecting Native American rights (Taylor, 1980). The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 marked a significant shift in the government’s relationship with Native American communities, as it enabled greater self-determination and autonomy. This shift in policy marked a significant step toward recognizing Native Americans as US citizens, enabling them to pursue their own economic, educational, and cultural goals.
Moreover, the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the recognition of Native American rights allowed for a period of unprecedented success for Native American communities. This period, marked by increased economic and cultural successes, was a direct result of the rights and freedoms granted to Native Americans. This event resulted in many Native American families becoming landowners, entrepreneurs, and business owners.
Furthermore, this period of success also enabled Native American communities to access educational opportunities, healthcare services, and other previously inaccessible resources (Barnes & Bowles, 2014). This period of progress and success for Native Americans marked a significant milestone in their history, providing them with a foundation to continue striving for further success.
Native American Activism
It is possible that better opportunities allowed for the creation of the American Indian Movement (AIM) of the 1970s, a group of Native American activists who fought for Indigenous rights. This movement was a response to the long history of land loss and assimilation of Indigenous people in the US. The AIM sought to reverse this trend and restore Native Americans to their rightful place in society (Brady, 2006). As such, the occupation of the Wounded Knee in South Dakota in 1973 was a significant event of the AIM (Brady, 2006, p. 2).
It began when members of AIM and the Oglala Sioux Tribe seized control of the village of Wounded Knee, which had long been a symbol of oppression for Native Americans. The occupation lasted for 71 days and drew international attention to the plight of Indigenous peoples in the US (Brady, 2006, p. 3). In addition to making their grievances known to the public, AIM used the occupation to call attention to the government’s continued failure to honor its treaty obligations to Native Americans.
Moreover, during the occupation, AIM utilized various symbols of resistance. For example, Brady (2006) mentions the American flag being hung upside down, used to express the Native Americans’ disdain for the dominant culture. The flag, hung in this way, was seen as a sign of distress and a call to arms. Additionally, religious leaders served as mediators throughout the negotiation process, and AIM members frequently used the village church to hold meetings (Brady, 2006).
On Easter Sunday, the occupiers reportedly reenacted the crucifixion of Jesus Christ in what could have been interpreted as a powerful symbolic gesture, a form of intimidation, or simply a spiritual ceremony (Brady, 2006). Some observers have suggested that this Act may have been used to demonstrate the lengths to which AIM was willing to go to achieve its goals (Brady, 2006). Whatever the purpose, the demonstration acted as a powerful reminder of the strength and commitment of the AIM occupiers.
However, the media coverage of the occupation of Wounded Knee was a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it was beneficial to the AIM movement, as it allowed them to spread their message to a broader audience (Brady, 2006). On the other hand, the media often portrayed the occupiers in a negative light, which could have been damaging to the cause (Brady, 2006). The media was also complicit in the fetishization and commodification of the occupation, which drew attention away from other vital issues.
As a result, the occupation of Wounded Knee demonstrates the challenges and achievements that Native Americans faced in the 1970s. It highlights the struggles of Indigenous people to gain recognition and respect in American society, as well as the successes achieved through collective resistance and effective media use. Although the occupation of Wounded Knee was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving its aims, it serves as an essential part of Native American history and a reminder of the long-standing oppression and marginalization of Indigenous people in the US.
Finally, the Trail of Broken Treaties in 1972 was a significant moment in the history of Native Americans, marking the culmination of the AIM’s 1970 activities. This event had a significant impact on Native Americans. The Trail of Broken Treaties was a symbolic protest march led by the AIM in Washington, DC (Berner, 2017).
The march was intended to bring attention to the long history of broken promises and treaties between the US government and Native Americans. The march concluded with the occupiers of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) building in Washington, DC, where protesters presented a proposal that included demands for improved housing, education, and healthcare for Native Americans (Berner, 2017).
The proposed Declaration outlined numerous grievances against the US government and symbolically declared the tribes’ independence from the US. The protesters eventually left the building peacefully after the government agreed to specific demands. However, the Trail of Broken Treaties served to draw attention to the ongoing mistreatment of Indigenous tribes by the US government.
This event marked a significant step towards recognition and respect for Native Americans, enabling Indigenous people to pursue their own economic, educational, and cultural goals. The protests and activism that took place during this time were a crucial part of the struggle for Native American rights and sovereignty. After the event, Native Americans experienced both challenges and achievements.
For example, Native Americans continued to face poverty, substandard medical treatment, and restricted access to education (Barnes & Bowles, 2014). Additionally, the event’s media coverage was often hostile and sensationalized, further contributing to the marginalization of the Indigenous people (Berner, 2017). Moreover, the US government failed to honor its promises and treaty obligations to Native Americans, leading to a continued struggle for recognition and respect.
Despite the immense challenges that Native Americans faced, the Trail of Broken Treaties ultimately proved to be a success in many ways. Most significantly, it served as a powerful reminder of the need for self-determination and active advocacy for Indigenous rights. It also inspired a new generation of Native American activists, who were galvanized by the demonstration of collective action and solidarity in pursuit of justice and equality.
This mobilization of Indigenous peoples in support of their rights had a lasting impact, as it helped to create greater awareness of the struggles and issues faced by Native Americans in the US. This event has gone on to become a symbol of the resilience and determination of Indigenous people. It has helped to shape the future of Indigenous rights advocacy in the US.
The Trail of Broken Treaties and the events leading up to it showed how assimilation, land loss, and self-determination drastically impacted Native American culture. Though Indigenous people have had to fight for recognition, the Trail of Broken Treaties demonstrated the potential of collective action. It allowed Native Americans to make their voices heard in a society that had long ignored their presence. As a result, this event is an integral part of Native American history and serves as a testament to the strength of Indigenous peoples’ unity.
Conclusion
To conclude, Native American history is largely characterized by prolonged oppression and marginalization, with issues like land loss, assimilation, and self-determination dramatically influencing Indigenous culture and US history. Despite continuous adversity, from the Dawes Act of 1887 to the push for self-determination in the 1970s, Native Americans have strived for respect.
Acts like the Meriam Report and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 provided mechanisms for Indigenous peoples to advocate for their rights and pursue their economic and cultural goals. The occupation of Wounded Knee by the American Indian Movement was a powerful reminder of the strength of the Indigenous people and their commitment to fighting for justice. Ultimately, this paper has demonstrated why self-determination is important when safeguarding the liberties and dignity of Native Americans, as well as how the fight for recognition and respect in American society has shaped the history of Native Americans.
References
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Brady, M. (2006). Rhetoric and resistance: Uncovering the symbolic battleground of the American Indian Movement at Wounded Knee. Conference Papers – International Communication Association, 1–27.
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Dennis, Y. W., Hirschfelder, A. B., & Flynn, S. R. (2016). Native American almanac: More than 50,000 years of the cultures and histories of indigenous peoples. Visible Ink Press.
Taylor, G. D. (1980). The New Deal and American Indian tribalism: The administration of the Indian reorganization act, 1934-45. University of Nebraska Press.