Introduction
The exploration of the so-called New World was a very controversial topic even before the popularization of historical revisionism. At that time, tales of new and completely foreign lands and cultures were exciting people across Europe. Writers such as Thomas More and Michel de Montaigne were inspired by the idea of unknown cultures to reflect on the state of Europe at the time.
Thomas More’s “Utopia,” also known as “On the Best State of a Republic and on the New Island of Utopia,” and Michel de Montaigne’s essay “Of Cannibals” are two of the more prominent works on this topic. While they differ in structure and form, both of these works serve as a good illustration of uncommon opinions regarding New World exploration. This paper will cover the themes and ideas of these two works on New World exploration, as well as their differences.
The Overview of the New World
The “discovery” of the Americas in the 16th century began a new era in exploration. The newest technologies were utilized to send explorers on massive ships to find new lands and resources. This period of exploration was also the start of a major colonial expansion for many European countries, which would eventually become a tragedy for the native peoples of those discovered lands. One of the first examples of this problem happened during the expedition of Christopher Columbus.
Despite the official position of the government, Columbus and his crew chose to exploit the native population of the places they visited, treating them as slaves and not considering them to be equals. Upon returning to Europe, he misrepresented many of the people he encountered as tribal cannibals, even outright saying they were evil and inhuman. Such defamations were made despite the fact that he and his crew were rescued by the native population of the Bahamas after his shipwreck (Jalata 55).
He and his crew were responsible for many crimes against native populations, but due to the distance and cultural differences of those lands, people did not have an immediate negative reaction to this treatment, even when the events came to light. Unfortunately, even today, these facts are denied by many people who choose to be ignorant about the issue, despite Columbus himself confirming many of the events in his own letters and journal.
However, opinion on this issue was clearly not unified, as the works of More and Montaigne show a more humanitarian view of the indigenous people of distant lands. Indeed, these authors subvert the idea of technological superiority being a symbol of moral superiority and try to reflect the hypocritical nature of Europe at that time.
The Themes
Both “Utopia” and “Of Cannibals” share an idyllic view of native life. However, the representations of those lives hold some important differences. In his essay, Montaigne describes the lives and beliefs of a native Polynesian tribe. He finds their lives to be fascinating, especially the stark differences between their society and that of Europe. One of the main aspects that caught his attention was the lack of infirmity, poverty, starvation, and other destitute states among these people (Montaigne 440). By his description, the natives were healthy and well fed and had no concern for money (Montaigne 427).
The lack of currency is especially important to note, as it leads to a variety of other positive impressions of the people. The essay depicts the day-to-day life of a native person as a relatively leisurely process. Tasks are done not out of a need for money, but for necessity, tradition, or glory (Montaigne 429). There is no such thing as employment in this native society (Montaigne, 427). Therefore, no one is left unemployed or hungry. The people share communal beliefs as they see others as a part of themselves, which leads to the natural desire to care for their fellow people.
Although gender roles were quite divisive in Europe at the time, the nature of relationships between men and women in the native population was in opposition to the monogamous European views. Polygamy is described as a status symbol. Glory is the only differentiating factor between men of this society because those who are seen as glorious are likely to have more wives. In contrast to traditional European attitudes, women would seek out other women to marry their husbands (Montaigne 438).
The only other notable aspect of life is comprised of war against opposing tribes. War is described as being waged only for the purpose of gaining glory (Montaigne 433). War is not seen as a bad thing, and not only the physical but the emotional strength of a person is valued. Even cannibalism, which was often used to dehumanize people, was done to pay tribute to the glory of the warriors (Montaigne 437). Deceit, greed, treachery, and other malicious acts are virtually non-existent, as there is no need for them in their society. These and other aspects illustrate the perceived perfection of native Polynesian life.
Compared to this Polynesian tribe, More describes a comparatively complex society. Utopia is a much bigger and technologically advanced country, which might explain its complex societal system. Nevertheless, More sees this society as having the perfect way of life, just as much as Montaigne does. Utopia is a fictional country but is heavily influenced by More’s views on European society and the idea of distant peoples living in completely different societal systems. It also reflects the simplicity of life in many of the newly discovered countries, despite it being a more complex society than the one described by Montaigne.
The people of Utopia live communal lives with little interest in wealth, as their society is structured in such a way to prevent it. People do not own property, instead of switching houses with each other every ten years (More 62). Gold is used only for chains that bind slaves, chamber pots, and other inelegant objects (More 76). Cities feature communal land, which is free to use for the people (More 59). Medical care is also free for every citizen (More 70). Unlike Montaigne’s ideal society, More shows a highly controlled community with strict rules. Work is compulsory, and both men and women are required to do it (More 67). This obligation, however, allows the workday to be only six hours long, which was much shorter than the average workday in Europe at the time. Laws are deliberately simple so that every person can understand them (More 95).
In More’s Utopia, the punishments are often severe, as many punished people become slaves (More 42). Slavery is not permanent, however, as a slave can be released for good behavior. Religious tolerance is practiced, as people of the island believe in many religions, including Christianity (More 112). Another major difference between Montaigne’s and More’s ideal societies are the sexual politics of these communities. Utopia shares surprisingly traditional beliefs on premarital sex and infidelity. A citizen punished for premarital sex would have to be permanently celibate for the rest of his or her life, and those who commit infidelity would be punished by slavery (More 92). On the other hand, traditional European gender roles are much less prominent due to the fact that men and women must work together. Women are also able to become priests, which would never have been permissible in European society (More 44).
The last major difference between these two works is the attitude towards war. Although Utopia is described as a country founded on conquering, its people do not enjoy war and approach it from a more humanitarian perspective (More 98). Their tactics rely on capturing enemy troops instead of killing them. The act of war itself is often avoided and seen as the last resort (More 99). The country is open to new citizens who are free to stay but are also just as free to leave if they find it unpleasant. This is how Christianity was brought to the island. The fact that the country was able to assimilate a new religion shows its dedication to peace and tolerance.
The differences between these two societies are stark, despite the common theme of perfection. Some of these differences are due to the varying nature of the format, as Montaigne describes a real native community, and More’s book is fiction; other differences, however, come from the different beliefs and experiences of the authors.
The Ideas
One of the core ideas in both of the works is that people should not be seen as inhuman just because they do not live in a certain kind of society. Montaigne opens his paper by describing how ancient Greeks referred to every other nation as “barbarians,” even though they often found no barbarism in the countries they fought (Montaigne 419). Greek society was very culturally and technologically advanced, with a unique history and great national pride. It was a nation, not unlike the countries of Europe. However, ancient Greeks were able to respect the societal differences between nations (Powell 29).
This was not the case between the countries of Europe and the native people of newly discovered countries. Both Montaigne’s and More’s works could be seen as a response to this notion. However, they operate through different means.
Montaigne takes a very direct approach in his essay by not only describing the life of native people in a positive light but also by providing commentary from a representative of those people. He describes the experience of a Polynesian person brought to see life in Europe. This individual’s response was not positive, as the sight of starving people begging for money and the general state of European society was in contrast with his views. The divide between classes is especially critiqued, and the Polynesian native is surprised that the people of the lower class have not tried to violently overturn those in the higher classes.
This critique of Europe continues as Montaigne describes how even the chief of the village has no interest in authority besides being the one to lead the army into battle (Montaigne 440). Even the controversy of cannibalism is subverted by a comparison to Europeans persecuting and burning people alive for their religious beliefs (Montaigne 430). Indeed, Montaigne’s ideas are presented clearly: he does not see Europe as superior to the native people because it has many worse problems than cannibalism (Desan 157).
On the other hand, More approaches the expression of his ideas in a more subversive way. The book serves as satire and can be seen as a work dedicated equally to the issues of European society and the fictional island. Humanitarian themes are present, and More sees Utopian society as a very admirable one, but many of its aspects are a hidden response to the existing issues of Europe. More was a lawyer and, over his long career, could have found the complexity of the judiciary system to be a burden on European society.
The deliberate simplicity of laws in Utopia, as well as its lack of lawyers, is an example of this perspective. Surprisingly, some ideas expressed by More do not line up with the public image of him. More was a devout Christian and contributed both time and money to the Church. However, Utopia is a deliberately multi-faith country in which religions can coexist with each other. Perhaps he was a much more progressive man than previously thought. Europe, during his time, was not a safe place to write such an extensive critique of society, so the choice of format allowed More to avoid persecution. It could be said that the humanitarian ideas of his writing extended not only to the natives but also to the people of Europe. Indeed, wars and religious persecution destroyed countless lives throughout European history, often without reason or purpose. A society that has neither, then, could be seen as ideal in that context (“Thomas More”).
Conclusion
Despite the differences in medium, ideas, and other aspects of the works, More and Montaigne present similar attitudes toward the people of the New World in an age that would prove to be tragic for many native societies. The critiques written by these authors help shed light on the complex reaction to the discovery of the New World.
Works Cited
Desan, Philippe. Montaigne: A Life. Princeton University Press, 2017.
Jalata, Asafa. Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama Bin Laden. Springer, 2016.
Montaigne, Michel de. Essays. Floating Press, 2009.
More, Thomas. Utopia. Lulu Press, 2013.
Powell, Anton. Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History From 478 BC. Taylor and Francis, 2016.
“Thomas More“. Biography. Web.