Introduction
Microorganisms may have different abilities and properties that affect many aspects of the lives of living beings. Their role in the ecosystem is significant and can significantly affect how fauna and flora are formed. Studying such objects as norovirus and rotavirus can help deepen the understanding of how they influence the existing system and the interaction of living organisms in nature.
Norovirus and rotavirus are viral entities belonging to Caliciviridae and Reoviridae, respectively (Santiso-Bellón et al., 2020). These microorganisms are the causative agents of many serious diseases that can threaten human well-being and life. They can cause gastroenteritis, which affects the digestive system in a way that causes vomiting and diarrhea. Reviewing these viruses can help one choose appropriate protection strategies in the future.
Description of the Microorganism
Norovirus and rotavirus are both viral organisms that differ in some aspects. One of these elements is the envelope, which is present only in rotavirus. Norovirus has an icosahedral morphology, which is characterized by the fact that it does not have a clear external and stable structure. An electron microscope is used to study these organisms since staining is unsuitable due to the lack of cellular structure.
Rotavirus has a larger diameter when viewed but does not have an envelope. Organisms’ structure is essential for identifying viruses (Thangjui et al., 2020). Norovirus is spherical without a shell, and rotavirus resembles a wheel with a two-layer capsid. This structure of these viruses allows them to infect other cells and begin to multiply in them (Thangjui et al., 2020). Norovirus is characterized by icosahedral morphology, and rotavirus has an enclosing RNA genome with a three-layered protein capsid.
Rotavirus differs in that it begins more acutely and has a sharp manifestation in the form of symptoms of infection. This demonstrates the possibility of a more straightforward diagnosis and further prevention. Norovirus is a slower-growing pathogen as this pathogen develops more complex symptoms in the future that add to fever. Because of this, many people may identify this manifestation as food poisoning. The increased potential for rotavirus and norovirus infection in children necessitates efforts to ensure more excellent protection for children (Santiso-Bellón et al., 2020). Vaccination in this way can provide reliable protection that can produce antibodies that will help more effectively resist viruses in the future.
Virulence Factors
Both viruses have specific virulence that determines their pathogenicity. Moreover, in contact with host cells, they manifest themselves in the development of gastroenteritis. Genetic diversity contributes to the emergence of multiple strains, which may sometimes pre-empt the immune system and become more difficult to detect (Thangjui et al., 2020). The ability to evade host reactions allows viruses to develop recurring infections in the body. Virulence factors relate to their ability to infect other cells and evade threats.
Norovirus has high resistance to external influences, so it can survive on open surfaces long. Such capabilities make its transmission much more accessible and contribute to increased infectivity. To contact another cell, the object uses capsid proteins and enters the cells to begin infection.
Rotavirus has proteins VP4 and VP7 that are used to enter the intestine cells. Thus, the virulence of viruses is relatively high and can pose a threat (Santiso-Bellón et al., 2020). These factors together lead to the fact that rotavirus can have a high ability to infect and multiply in epithelial cells. Both pathogens thus have high rates of evasion from the immune system, which can pose significant challenges to treatment.
Immunity
Norovirus and rotavirus primarily affect the gastrointestinal tract, which causes the body to use physical and chemical defense barriers. The acidic environment of the stomach is one of the critical factors that prevent the development of viruses in the body and may prevent them from starting to develop actively.
At the same time, innate immune cells play an essential role in protecting against norovirus as they actively recognize the threat. For example, macrophages can use pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to initiate the body’s inflammatory response (Pitkänen et al., 2022). Adaptations that occur due to the penetration of viruses are also of great importance. This may occur with the onset of the production of immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is supposed to protect the mucous membrane.
Viruses can change their surface antigens, which the immune system recognizes. This significantly delays the body’s response and defenses. Norovirus’s high genetic variability is leading to the emergence of various new strains (Thangjui et al., 2020). In addition, its survival is facilitated by rapid replication, which contributes to the body’s ability to spread infection. Rotavirus avoids the effects of antibodies because it functions and multiplies in the small intestine cells. The viruses in question do not cause delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions.
Infectious Disease Information
One of the main inflammations caused by norovirus and rotavirus is gastroenteritis, which affects the gastrointestinal tract. Several symptoms, such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and nausea, characterize the disease. In addition, a side effect of vomiting is fluid loss, which causes a general deterioration in a person’s health. In severe cases, such infectious diseases can lead to serious life-threatening consequences (Pitkänen et al., 2022). Rotavirus, in turn, can be the leading cause of diarrhea. Both viruses are characterized by causing diseases that are pretty acute and can appear suddenly without any prerequisites.
None of the viruses can be considered opportunistic because they are transmitted through contaminated food or by contact with a surface. In most cases, the body can successfully destroy the infection within a few days, which means they are not latent. Both infections are acute and characterized by different periods of duration. If the infection is left untreated, it can cause a secondary recurrence of the disease followed by hospitalization (Faden & Schaefer, 2021). The complicated condition may preferentially manifest itself in risk groups, which necessitates the administration of intravenous drugs to maintain the balance of substances.
Epidemiology
The viruses in question have a variety of transmission routes that begin from an infected object or person. This object can subsequently come into contact with various environments, food, water, or surfaces, due to which particles of microorganisms settle on them (Figure 1). Food or a person can then directly contact the contaminated surface, which results in the remaining virus entering a new body (Faden & Schaefer, 2021). After this, infection occurs, which is accompanied by the release of fecal matter and vomiting, which contributes to further virus transmission if hygiene rules are not observed sufficiently.
Prevention
Specific vaccines can help build barriers against developing infections for rotavirus and norovirus. The two primary childhood rotavirus vaccines are RotaTeq and Rotarix, which are given orally to infants in a multiple-dose series. Both vaccines should be started from 2 months of age as they are critical in preventing the development of a solid reaction to the pathogen.
Stimulation of the immune system is the main task of these drugs, which provides sufficient protection for the body. There is no one for norovirus, but precautions can be taken against both viruses to avoid infection. These include hand hygiene, which is particularly important after visiting the toilet. In addition, one should also monitor the purity of the food a person takes.
Another measure can be called maintaining the cleanliness of the environment, such as the place of residence. Frequent cleaning may prevent norovirus from remaining on surfaces. Infestation can be prevented by thoroughly and regularly washing all surfaces with chlorine bleach. This product, however, is dangerous if it comes into contact with the mucous surfaces of the body. This makes it necessary to take precautions when using it (Faden & Schaefer, 2021). Providing sufficient measures to resist infection is the leading way to contribute to establishing sustainable health.
Treatment
There are no specific chemotherapeutic agents for the viruses in question. Analogs of drugs are maintenance and preventive therapy. These methods include drinking enough clean fluids to prevent dehydration caused by diarrhea and vomiting. Poisoning is a dangerous condition that must be addressed by washing the body, which may also be accompanied by eating a balanced diet. Nutritional support is imperative to combat rotavirus and norovirus as they substantially impact the gastrointestinal tract. In combination with these support methods, antiemetic drugs can be used to ensure that the body retains sufficient nutrients taken with a balanced diet.
In addition, this will improve the patient’s comfort and make the recovery process more acceptable (Faden & Schaefer, 2021). There is also an active vaccine for rotavirus that can help prevent infection in a preventive manner. It should be administered in childhood to create sufficient immunity in the body. In addition, this measure can help eliminate infections and virus transmission to other people in the future.
Clinical Relevance
No multidrug-resistant strains have been found in rotavirus or norovirus. In addition, preventive treatment is of primary importance in the context of treatment for these microorganisms since no direct-acting drugs have been invented. Multi-drug resistance refers to bacteria that cannot be treated with most antibiotics (Pitkänen et al., 2022). Taking this into account, we can say that about the viruses in question, the most effective preventive measures can effectively address the routes of infection by viruses.
In clinical or healthcare settings, providers may be particularly at risk because they have direct contact with infected people. In this regard, they need to take enhanced precautions that can help protect the health of therapists (Pitkänen et al., 2022). In addition, the staff of environmental structures are responsible for ensuring the cleanliness and maintaining disinfection of the clinic premises. Common areas are the most contaminated because they are constantly inhabited by many people who may carry infected microorganisms.
Regarding procedures, the primary risks of infection are present when handling diarrhea and vomiting, which are common phenomena when the disease manifests itself with the viruses in question. When caring for patients who experience specific symptoms of the disease, it is necessary to use specific protective equipment (Pitkänen et al., 2022). Procedures performed in emergency departments may also increase infection rates as people have acute symptoms of gastroenteritis and are, therefore, carriers of viruses.
Considering the specificity of increased infection of children with the microorganisms in question, disease transmission is also dangerous (Faden & Schaefer, 2021). Rotavirus has a broad predisposition to transmission through children and their waste products. Norovirus and rotavirus are both viruses, which means that antibiotics are ineffective against them.
Conclusion
It should be noted that norovirus and rotavirus are serious pathogens that can cause disease in adults and children. Moreover, they are primarily aimed at damaging the gastrointestinal tract, which can cause further development of gastroenteritis. The course of the disease is manifested by vomiting, nausea, and diarrhea. There is an effective vaccine against rotavirus, which, if used promptly, can prevent the development of the disease in children.
One of the main ways to counter these microorganisms is thorough prevention, which can be aimed at getting rid of pathogens. At the same time, maintaining cleanliness in medical institutions is especially important since doctors and nurses fall into the risk category due to constant contact with infected people. Antibiotics are ineffective against the pathogens in question since they are not bacteria. Because of this, the only imperative measures are prevention, which can help people eliminate infection.
References
Faden, H., & Schaefer, B. A. (2021). Secretors of HBGA and susceptibility to norovirus and rotavirus diarrhea. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 40(9), 846-851. Web.
Pitkänen, O., Markkula, J., & Hemming-Harlo, M. (2022). Sapovirus, Norovirus and rotavirus detections in stool samples of hospitalized Finnish children with and without acute gastroenteritis. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 41(5), e203-e207. Web.
Santiso-Bellón, C., Randazzo, W., Pérez-Cataluña, A., Vila-Vicent, S., Gozalbo-Rovira, R., Muñoz, C., Buesa, J., Sanchez, G. & Rodríguez Díaz, J. (2020). Epidemiological surveillance of norovirus and rotavirus in sewage (2016–2017) in Valencia (Spain). Microorganisms, 8(3), 1-21. Web.
Thangjui, S., Sripirom, N., Titichoatrattana, S., & Mekmullica, J. (2020). Accuracy and cross-reactivity of rapid diagnostic tests for norovirus and rotavirus in a real clinical setting. Infection & Chemotherapy, 52(3), 360-368. Web.