Introduction
The history of racial discrimination is long and encompasses many periods, such as segregation in the United States, which was prevalent in the 20th century and affected millions of African-American citizens. Even in times of military conflict that called for national unity, the inequality persisted. During that period, the U.S. military was divided based on race.
Black soldiers were frequently placed in segregated units where they experienced unfair treatment, few opportunities for promotion, and inferior facilities and resources when compared to their white counterparts. Thus, with many individuals, including the highest-ranking individuals, Executive Order 9981 was aimed at eliminating unequal opportunities and called for the elimination of discrimination, which was crucial for ensuring better treatment of African-American soldiers.
Treatment of African Americans During World War II
When reviewing the issue, it is evident that the oppression was demonstrated not simply by White counterparts but by the overall system in the military that was designed to promote the white experts. During World War II, over a million African American people served in all branches of the United States military (National WWII Museum, 2020). African Americans were divided into distinct units by the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps on the grounds that their military prowess was inferior to that of white soldiers (National WWII Museum, 2020).
The Army routinely put White officers from the American South in charge of Black soldiers, adding to this humiliation (National WWII Museum, 2020). Throughout the Army, African Americans held equally important roles as truck drivers, nursing staff, technicians, gunners, and paratroopers (National WWII Museum, 2020). Therefore, the problem was deeply ingrained into the armed forces’ structure.
One article, Tuskegee Airmen, written by Gropman, is dedicated specifically to reviewing the atrocities present in the army, along with the mistreatment of black service members. The author discusses how the first service that completely incorporated its ranks was the Air Force (Gropman, 1996). The Tuskegee Airmen, who endured horrendous discrimination during World War II, proved they could fly and take on Hitler’s finest, which sparked the process in 1949 (Gropman, 1996).
The idea that Blacks were less valuable than Whites, which served as the basis for segregation, was challenged by this success (Gropman, 1996). Nobody could claim a valid reason for segregation if Blacks were just as capable of operating, maintaining, and flying airplanes as Whites were (Gropman, 1996). In this case, the writer brings the attention of the readers to the growing tension, especially in the face of the enemy.
Additionally, Gropman emphasizes the common sentiments in the area of science, which caused major concerns. Investigations claimed that black troops were more likely to be deficient in physical toughness and that their brains were considerably smaller compared to that of white troops (Gropman, 1996). The reports insisted that in order to help connect workforce needs, the Army should give Blacks more opportunities, but they also stated that Blacks ought to constantly serve in segregated units under the direction of White officers (Gropman, 1996).
Besides research works that focused on facts that were not scientifically supported, oppression in military bases was present. For black pilots, Central Alabama was a dangerous training ground (Gropman, 1996). The local white population was explicitly hostile to the newcomers and opposed the idea of a black-flying education base (Gropman, 1996). For the pilots, life beyond the base was frequently risky (Gropman, 1996). In other words, the treatment of African Americans during the war was limited to their race, completely invalidating their capabilities and expertise.
Government Actions to Prevent Discrimination in the Armed Forces
In order to protect the vulnerable populations and minorities fighting for the safety of their homeland, the United States government could have done more initiatives that would stress the importance of unity. However, only a few authoritative figures contributed to efforts that could give African American service members equal opportunities. According to General Edwards, segregation is a flawed personnel practice (Gropman, 1996). Black people with education and aptitude were compelled by the services to be housed in all-black units, the majority of which were support units (Gropman, 1996).
As a result, black people with the necessary skills and education to advance in status and make a difference in combat zones were kept from doing so (Gropman, 1996). Although General Edwards was aware of the wastefulness of this practice, he was powerless to stop it as long as the Air Force remained segregated (Gropman, 1996). It was in April 1949 that General Edwards informed the highest-ranking leaders and the uniformed authority that the Air Force had embraced a system of integration (Gropman, 1996). Here, the efforts made by Edwards were the cornerstone of action toward a more fair treatment of all soldiers.
At the same time, there were those who supported the integration and those who opposed it. President Truman urged Congress to implement every suggestion on equality in the army in February 1948 (Truman, 1948). Executive Order 9981 provided that “there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin” (Truman, 1948, para. 3). In order to carry out this agenda, it created the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, whose task it is to propose changes to military regulations (Truman, 1948). Thus, the order’s proponents understood that racial discrimination was inimical to the democratic principles that the United States claimed to defend.
However, those opposed to desegregation, such as Kenneth C. Royall and the U.S. Army, had a different perspective. They thought that rather than being a tool for social change, the military’s main goal should be to concentrate on military objectives and effectiveness. In his letter to Louis Johnson in 1948, Royall recalls, “When the Negro group […] queried me as to the possibility of an experimental unit, I replied that an experiment of this type would not be appropriate at that time and would be harmful to the national defense” (Royall, 1948, para. 2). Therefore, this was a challenging time for authoritative figures to accept the elimination of segregation in the army.
African Americans’ Fight for Freedom at Home and Abroad
Nevertheless, even after the United States military desegregation was mandated by President Harry S. Truman in 1948, African Americans’ struggle for equal civil rights was far from ended. Minorities not only combated racism within the United States armed forces and within the country but also faced racism abroad. Following the end of WWII and the start of the Cold War, inequality and racial discrimination in the United States were brought to the attention of the international community, leading to federal and judicial action (Library of Congress, n.d.). The results were seen in the mentioned laws that regulated segregation in the military.
In addition, the post-World War II era saw a surge in opposition to African Americans’ status as second-class citizens nationwide. The fight to end racial inequality was covered by newspaper, radio, and TV reporters, who also recorded the use of peaceful protest tactics in opposition to racial segregation and discrimination (Library of Congress, n.d.). On a local scale, an example of the Rosa Parks incident is worthy of mentioning.
Parks ignited a chain of events that gave the fight for civil rights an impetus it had never known after she decided not to give her seat to a white individual in Alabama and was detained in 1955 (Library of Congress, n.d.). Overall, the issue of segregation was acute not only on a smaller scale, present in small towns, but in the international arena as well, meaning that African American individuals battled racism both domestically and away from home.
Conclusion
In summary, Executive Order 9981, which included many high-ranking individuals, called for the abolition of prejudice and equal opportunity, both of which were essential for guaranteeing that African American soldiers would receive better treatment. Looking back at the matter, it becomes clear that the military’s system as a whole—which was created to elevate White experts—was the means by which the oppression was exhibited, not only by White colleagues. This humiliation was increased by the Army’s practice of placing White officers in command of Black service members.
Gropman highlights the prevalent attitudes in science, which gave rise to serious worries. According to investigations, black troops were more likely than white troops to lack physical toughness, and their brains were significantly smaller. The U.S. government could have taken more steps to emphasize the value of unity in order to safeguard minorities and vulnerable populations who are defending their country. Furthermore, there was a rise in disagreement with African Americans’ social standing as second-class citizens both domestically and internationally in the post-World War II era.
References
Gropman, A. L. (1996). Tuskegee airmen. Air Force Magazine, 1996, 52-56. Web.
Library of Congress. (n.d.). The African American odyssey: A quest for full citizenship. Web.
National WWII Museum. (2020). African Americans fought for freedom at home and abroad during World War II. Web.
Royall, K. (1948). Kenneth Royall to Louis Johnson, December 2, 1948. Harry S. Truman Library Museum. Web.
Truman, H. (1948). Executive Order 9981. Web.