Introduction
The unequal distribution of power is one of the main features of the modern world. Some states can impact global intercourse more than others. It can result from numerous factors, such as natural resources, economies, and military power. At the same time, historical development is another critical factor that determines the state’s current position at the international level. For instance, Russia is one of the most powerful states determining global policy nowadays.
However, the nation has taken a long path to transform into one of the biggest and most powerful states. After recovering from the Mongol invasion and vassalage, the Great Duchy of Moscow was created and later transformed into the Russian Empire. The wars with powerful European states and empires helped support Russia’s status as a growing power. However, the complete transformation into the superstate and the global power occurred in the 19th century. The Russian Empire’s leading role in the Napoleonic wars, the French army’s debacle during its Russian campaign, and the Congress of Vienna recognized the state’s leading role globally.
Russia Before the Napoleonic Wars
The growth of the Russian Empire’s importance at the international level started before the Napoleonic wars. Peter the Great radically altered the mentality of local people and created a new, ambitious state. He created the strong Russian Army and Russian Navy, which proved their effectiveness in the Great Northern War by completely defeating Sweden’s forces (Volkov and Krishchyunas 15).
Peter’s successors, especially Elizabeth and Catherine the Great, continued his policy and struggled to spread the territory and influence of the state (Volkov and Krishchyunas 60). The empire advanced its boundaries to the Black Sea and became a powerful force at the international level. Its ambitions were proven by participating in the Seven Years’ War and the Partitions of Poland (Volkov and Krishchyunas 75). Once a threat to the Duchy of Moscow, Poland disappeared from the political map of Europe, being consumed by the mighty Russian empire. In such a way, the state entered the 19th century with numerous resources for its further rise.
The state acquired a new Emperor, Alexander I, who came to the throne with new ambitions. The Russian Empire made peace with France and Britain and focused on becoming a more active player in the international discourse (Hartley, “Is Russia Part of Europe?” 369). The emperor wanted to prove the state’s “Europeanness” as it had not been previously entirely accepted by Russians themselves and other Europeans (Hartley, “Is Russia Part of Europe?” 369).
Although most monarchies of that period recognized the might of a fast-evolving state and the potential benefits of having it as an ally, they did not consider Russia part of the European political landscape. In such a way, Alexander’s attempts to restore normal relations with neighbors and promote liberal reforms within a state focused on transforming the country and altering its global role. However, the radical changes in the balance of power caused by the French Revolution and the start of the Napoleonic Wars altered these plans.
Napoleonic Wars
From 1792 to 1815, there were massive changes in relations between states and global policy. After his successful campaigns in Egypt and Syria, Napoleon became the absolute ruler of a new French state and acquired access to its human and financial resources (Mikaberidze 1239). Thus, the revolution, the execution of the monarch, and the following events were not accepted by other dominant states as they saw it as a direct threat to their power and social order.
The British Empire, Austria, Prussia, and Spain, headed by legitimate monarchs, could not accept Napoleon, who did not have an inborn right to reign. As a result, the young French state had to protect itself, and the new emperor started a series of military conflicts. Because of Alexander’s focus on the European region, Russia could not stand aside and joined allies, forming a coalition to defeat Napoleon.
Defeats
However, due to the genius of the French emperor, the Allies suffered numerous defeats. The Great Army’s soldiers were motivated by the idea of protecting their motherland and freedom and were ready to fight for their ruler (Mikaberidze 1239). The French Army became one of the most skilled and mighty armies in Europe, as evidenced by its outstanding victories.
At the same time, the Wars of the Coalition showed signs of Russia’s increased power (Mikaberidze 1239). Unlike others, Russian soldiers fought hard, and generals, following the great Suvorov’s lessons, resisted Napoleon in many situations (Arnold 508). However, because of the lack of cooperation between allies, Napoleon defeated the coalition’s troops and strengthened his position (Arnold 508).
The battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805 became Napoleon’s most significant victory, indicating the complete defeat of the coalition. The following French victories at Jena and Friedland indicated the need for negotiations (Arnold 507). As a result, a new agreement between states introducing the new balance of power emerged.
The Treaty of Tilsit
The Treaty of Tilsit resulted from the war between France and the Coalition. Although Napoleon strengthened his position, the document evidences Russia’s growing involvement in European concerns and its becoming one of the essential powers. The document shows that most of the articles outline the new borders within Europe and establish specific patterns in relations between European states (“Treaty between France and Russia, Tilsit, 7 July 1807”).
Thus, Napoleon’s desire to resolve all territorial claims and reconsider the balance of power through negotiations with Russia shows his essential role at the global level. At the same time, its ability to impact the diplomacy of other states can be seen. For instance, the treaty states, “His Majesty Emperor Napoleon accepts the mediation of the Emperor of all the Russias, to negotiate and conclude a definitive treaty of peace between France and England” (“Treaty between France and Russia, Tilsit, 7 July, 1807”). The article shows the Russian Empire’s increased power and role in regulating relations within the continent.
Moreover, the treaty emphasizes the restoration of some states or the redistribution of territories. For instance, the document established the Duchy of Warsaw as the new formation, while Russia had to accept it (“Treaty between France and Russia, Tilsit, 7 July 1807”). Similar points were related to Saxony and other smaller states loyal to Napoleon (“Treaty between France and Russia, Tilsit, 7 July 1807”).
In such a way, the Treaty of Tilsit can be considered the document evidencing the increased importance of the Russian Empire and its engagement in European policy. Additionally, it became one of the significant forces opposing a serious enemy and trying to unite others to achieve the desired result. These factors highlight the constantly increasing role of Russia in the global discourse and its transformation into a global power.
Growing Ambitions
However, regardless of the acceptance of the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit by all European states, the situation in Europe remained complex. The British Empire was not satisfied with the results, as they impacted its role at the global level. Furthermore, the Russian Empire’s interests were also affected. Alexander I could not accept the defeat that would mean the end of his ambitions (Contente). For this reason, the period from 1807 to 1812 could be considered a preparation for a new campaign.
Napoleon was not satisfied with the failure of his attempts to isolate Britain and the continuation of the relations between the British and Russian Empires (Contente). For this reason, the invasion of Russia and its complete defeat were possible ways to eliminate the last power in Europe, which supported Britain and guaranteed its dominant position. Additionally, Russia’s resources, the successful transformation of its army, and the growing military power were threatening signs for Napoleon (Kelerchian). For this reason, Napoleon expected that the new campaign would lead to complete dominance and global recognition.
War Against Russia
Thus, Napoleon’s war against Russia was a fatal decision. The French invasion of Russia became a turning point in European history (Kelerchian). The defeat of the Grand Army resulted in the collapse of the French Empire and the end of its hegemony. It made Russia a global power and superstate that was able to impact global policy and intercourse (Kelerchian). The clash between the two empires can also be considered a struggle between candidates for the new international power.
Labaume, one of the witnesses of the events that occurred during the Napoleon campaign, stated that France had never been more powerful than after the treaty signed in Tilsit (7). Blinded by this fame and prosperity and obsessed with supporting the continental system, Napoleon planned the invasion of Russia (Labaume 14). Controlling the bigger part of the continent, he collected an army of many people and representatives of various states.
Labaume compares it to the march of various nations to the conquest of Troy (17). This means that Russia had to oppose the United European army, except for the British forces. The Grand Army had three hundred thousand infantry, sixty thousand cavalry, and around a thousand pieces of cannons (Labaume 18). It became one of the largest armies collected during the Napoleonic Wars.
The long preparation and planning were linked to Napoleon’s ideas of building the empire of Europe. De Segur writes that Napoleon introduced the idea of making France the center and base of the continent (35). Moreover, he informed his generals that it was essential to complete what had begun and ensure all states adapted to his outstanding genius (De Segur 35).
At the same time, Russia’s powerful position is evidenced by Napoleon’s concerns and fears. The emperor conquered the thrones of the south and west of Europe; however, he “perceived the northern throne of Alexander ever ready to overshadow him” (De Segur 37). In such a way, having acknowledged the role of the Russian Empire and its ability to become a force uniting other states and leading a new coalition against him, Napoleon started a campaign that altered the continent’s future.
French Army’s Collapse
However, the Russian campaign became a disaster for the Grand Army. As against Napoleon’s plans, the Russians chose the tactics of fierce, unexpected retreats, counterattacks, and guerrilla war (Kelerchian). Planning to defeat the Russian Imperial Army in one or two big battles and make Alexander ask for a new treaty, Napoleon faced unprecedented resistance and numerous difficulties (Kelerchian). The unfamiliar and giant landscapes, lack of provision, poorly organized army support, constant attacks on supply routes, and the talented Russian generals countered Napoleon’s attempts to end the war and attain the desired goal (Kelerchian). Napoleon’s most tremendous success was the conquest of Moscow; however, even after it, Alexander I did not want to negotiate.
The collapse of the initial plans and the poor state of the Grand Army impacted Napoleon’s decision to retreat from Moscow and reinforce. However, this intention also failed as the Russian Imperial Army defeated the French forces in a series of strategic battles, which resulted in the catastrophe. De Segur states, “the grand army, which, for twenty years, had shown itself successfully triumphant in all capitals of Europe, now, for the first time, reappeared mutilated, disarmed, and fugitive” (523). It became one of the most humiliating moments in Napoleon’s career and reign (De Segur 523).
At the same time, it became the perfect moment of glory for the Russian Imperial Army. It defeated the forces previously considered invincible and proved the power of the Russian weapon, its generals, and the state’s ability to unite and resist forces threatening its existence. Furthermore, it demonstrated the fair nature of Russia’s claim for global dominance and central role in international policy.
Importance of Victory for Russia and Its Ambitions
The collapse of Napoleon in Russia became a shock for the whole world and had numerous delayed consequences. At the start of the French invasion of the Russian Empire, the other major European powers were sure that Russia would not be able to defeat Napoleon without the support of other allies (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 84). After the defeats in the Battle of Austerlitz and Friedland, the Great Army headed by Napoleon was considered the most incredible power in the world, with no opponents that could resist it (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 84).
The invasion of the massive army consisting of around 680,000 was considered a lethal blow to the Russian Empire (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 85). However, the defeat of the best French forces and humiliating retreat from Russian lands transformed the status of Russia within Europe (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 84). The Russian Imperial Army’s astonishing victory helped the nation establish its military superiority and become the dominant power in Europe and globally (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 84). Alexander I pushed Napoleon back to the borders of France and his ideas of Russian domination (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 84). It became the turning point in the nation’s history and further development.
Furthermore, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia critically altered the mentality of the people living there. In the state, it was named the Fatherland War, or Patriotic War, which reflected its importance for the nation’s future. Napoleon’s defeat resulted from consolidating all forces within the state, including the power, the church, the nobility, the peasantry, and the servile (Neumann 140).
Furthermore, the end of the campaign with Russian troops marching across Paris in the middle of Europe increased the state’s prestige. It made its people believe in their exclusive nature and power to impact global events (Hartley, “War, Economy and Utopianism” 85). As a result, during the following centuries, the idea of Russia’s unique nature became an integral part of people’s mentality. It impacted the nation’s development, its efforts to preserve its role in the international discourse, and its opposition to other states that pretended to become superpowers and compete with Russia.
Congress of Vienna
The era of the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815 after Napoleon’s complete defeat and the collapse of his empire. The need for a new framework regulating relations within Europe was fulfilled by signing the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna on 9 June, 1815 (Langhorne 313). It became the central document that impacted politics and the situation in the region.
It remained the basis for the conduct of international politics of all states that signed it until 1914, when a new global conflict started (Langhorne 313). At the same time, the final act accepted by all participants of the Congress of Vienna recognized the Russian Empire as the new superstate with the ability to impact all events occurring globally (Langhorne 313). It became the legal proof of the increased state’s power and its transformation into a force that others could not disregard.
The articles of the Final Act prove that Russia became one of the parties that benefited most from the Napoleonic Wars. The central role played by the Russian Empire in defeating France was acknowledged by accepting its territorial claims and its right to determine the borders of the new Europe. For instance, the Act states that “The duchy of Warsaw, except the provinces and districts which are otherwise disposed of by the following Articles, is united to the Russian empire” and it will “and be possessed by his majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, his heirs and successors in perpetuity” (“Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/General Treaty (1815)”).
Furthermore, the document accepted Russia’s right to control the territories of Finland and made it part of the empire (“Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/General Treaty (1815)”). This means that all state territorial claims were satisfied. Moreover, its participation in determining the continent’s future showed its exceptional role in the discourse.
Conclusion
In such a way, the 19th century became a critical period in Russia’s history. Alexander’s ambitions shaped the vectors of the state’s foreign policy and reforms occurring within the country. That is why Russia became an active participant in the Napoleonic Wars and entered direct opposition with France. After a series of defeats, its position became threatened, and Napoleon started his Russian Campaign, hoping to eliminate the threat from the Russian Empire.
However, the collapse of the Great Army and Russia’s victory created the basis for the nation’s transformation. Russia became the only force that managed to resist Napoleon and defeat him, increasing its prestige and proving its power. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 recognized the dominant role of the Russian Empire and its transformation into one of the superstates, impacting global policy. In such a way, the war with Napoleon and its victory became a turning point in Russia’s history and future development.
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