Introduction
Poverty relates to the inability to financially need basic needs such as nutritional and housing stability. While the definition is relatively unidimensional, multiple elements are to be considered when examining poverty in regard to its occurrence, the elements facilitating low income, and the circumstances that follow. Several theories can be applied to explain poverty both from an economic and social viewpoint. For example, the Marxist framework links poverty with classism and capitalism, which is a combination of financial and social constructs. On the other hand, the functional framework explains the phenomenon as being a complex structure in which multiple elements are to be considered, such as education, physical health, and household. Another social-based theory is the feminist perspective, which relates to the idea that women are subjected to several factors hindering their potential for earning income. In this paper, poverty in the UK will be examined from the Marxist perspective and compared to the functional and feminist frameworks concerning factors facilitating the occurrence of low income.
Overview of Poverty in the UK
Despite the fact that the UK is a first-world country, poverty is still a relatively critical issue that is being solved through various initiatives addressing the elements generating such outcomes. Researchers show that during the last ten years, child poverty has increased and is currently 22%, which is 10% higher than in countries such as Norway and Iceland (Marmot, 2020). Moreover, the same review highlights that there is a current housing crisis, which is why homelessness has become more prominent. It is essential to point out that the 2007-2008 recession led to a global crisis. Researchers mention that UK citizens have experienced financial disaster through an increase in unemployment and income reduction (Boyce et al., 2018). Additionally, current studies highlight that the production has suffered and has not recovered since (Sensier & Devine, 2020). Another financial crisis has been generated as a result of the restrictions implemented during the COVID-19 lockdown. Thus, the UK has faced new difficulties from an economic perspective due to businesses closing and individuals not being able to secure a stable income (Sawyer, 2021). Currently, Power et al. (2020) point out that more than 20% of adults in the UK are either marginally, moderately, or severely food insecure. The findings correlate with a health issue that is widely linked to poverty in first-world countries, namely, obesity.
Individuals with low income cannot afford nutritional meals and products, which is why unhealthier options are easier to acquire yet linked to adverse health consequences. The study conducted by Noonan (2018) links adolescents experiencing poverty with excess body weight. Thus, the health outcomes generated as a result of a lack of financial stability are adverse due to factors such as the inability to purchase healthy foods, access high-quality medical care, and practice self-care.
Multiple additional factors impact the income of a household. Namely, researchers mention that single-parent homes and families with multiple children are more likely to experience poverty (O’Connell et al., 2018). Thus, in one case, financial struggles are facilitated by the presence of only one breadwinner, while in the other one, the high spending. Several researchers also mention that poverty is linked to one’s gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, Briggs (2021) mentions the phenomenon of gendered poverty in which women are more likely to have a lower income. Poverty as a phenomenon tends to affect the most vulnerable populations the most, such as minorities and children. As a result, current literature highlights that financial struggles generate circumstances in which children go through inequality and domestic abuse (Featherstone et al., 2019). It is certain that multiple elements both create poverty and result from economic imbalances, which is why a theoretical framework is to be applied to further determine the complexity of the issue.
The Marxist Perspective
Marxism is based on the idea that class relations and capitalism create destruction in countries in which such systems are put in place. According to researchers, the structure of society is built on class consciousness (Amal, 2018). Hence, people are intrinsically aware that their financial success is impossible due to the fact that they do not have a higher social status. Hence, Karl Marx believed that the working class, while having the power to demand equality, fails to do so, which creates a system in which capitalism is at the core of the economic structure (Burawoy, 2022). Hence, the conclusions in regard to poverty follow the idea that the phenomenon is the result of class inequality. Moreover, Marxism emphasizes that the challenge is the fact that the class that has the most actual power, the working one, is socially lower than the one that has the power de-jure, the bourgeoisie.
It is certain that the proletariat, hence, the ones with lower income, would benefit from installing a Marxist approach in which production is controlled by employees rather than employers. As a result, most countries that have had revolutions against capitalism are Third World nations in which the difference between the rich and the poor is substantial (Desai, 2020). Another poverty element that the Marxism ideology can address is inequality. Researchers mention that in the UK, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Black residents have a median weekly household income of £335, £365, and £410 compared to the same variable for white people standing at £518 (Francis-Devine, 2020). Hence, poverty is somewhat linked to one’s race and ethnicity. Marxism, on the other hand, views individuals for their professional potential in regard to maintaining and increasing production. As a result, researchers recommend addressing such inequalities by employing a Marxist agenda (Harvey, 2021). Additional pieces of literature also link the class disparities present in the Marxist framework with systemic racism (Friedman, 2019). Thus, the social division created through the division of people into classes and casts facilitates circumstances in which one cannot access the same resources as another person of a different colour, background, and ethnicity. It can be concluded that the Marxist explanation of poverty is the caste system in which the working class is powerless due to the dynamics of the class that controls the means of production.
Structural Functionalist Framework
The Marxist viewpoint shares similarities with the structural-functionalist one, yet differences persist. In order for the two ideas to be exemplified, it is vital to highlight the elements of functionalism that correlate with the origins of poverty and its characteristics. The core of the perspective is the idea that poverty is a system in which multiple elements are intertwined and create outcomes linked to financial deficits (Izadi et al., 2020). Thus, instead of poverty being explained as a result of a low-paying job, it is illustrated as a system in which a variety of levels are included. The figure most known for contributions to this theory is Talcott Parsons, who mentions the importance of addressing social structures when addressing income (Emerald, 2020). Thus, one’s income depends on the job, academic performance, household, culture, values, social status, and similar elements having an impact from an economic standpoint. At the same time, it can be stated that a person without high-level education, a two-parent household, a healthy social life, and a healthy body is more likely to experience poverty throughout their lifetime.
The link between social determinants and poverty has been widely examined through research. For example, Manshor et al. (2020) have published an article with evidence linking low income with social problems. Thus, people experiencing barriers from the perspective of social constructs are less likely to achieve high economic performances. Moreover, a study conducted by Rowley et al. (2021) considers social determinants as circumstances impacting income. The researchers concluded that such factors are not only adverse in regard to one’s financial stability but also health, which is an element that has previously been discussed in relation to poverty. However, the structural functionalism framework highlights that poverty itself is a part of the system, which implies that the economic hierarchy benefits society to an extent. Thus, the idea is that people who benefit from specific social constructs, such as having the means to acquire a high-level education, are to be at the top of the financial gain system (Sofo & Wicks, 2017). Thus, the perspective portrays a system in which poverty is an intrinsic element within the social framework that, if fully addressed, will cause the collapse of the system as a whole.
The intrinsic similarity between Marxism and functionalism in regard to the definition of poverty is the acknowledgment of a social structure promoting the phenomenon from being addressed. Thus, in Marxism, poverty is linked to the social hierarchy between those contributing to the means of production, hence, creating capital (Castree, 2021). Functionalists agree with the existence of structural elements contributing to poverty. However, the difference resides in how poverty is to be addressed. Marxists believe that poverty is a product of capitalism which generates a system in which specific casts benefit from the work of others (Sayers, 2021). Functionalists, however, consider poverty an element of the societal system that balances other aspects of its existence (Turner, 2017). In this case, while poverty is a result of potential inequalities and systemic barriers installed to prevent individuals from gaining capital, it is necessary for a healthy society. As a result, it can be stated that Marxism aims to address the challenge instead of accepting its necessity.
Feminist Framework
The feminist sociological framework is another lens through which poverty can be viewed. A term that is closely associated with this viewpoint is the “feminization of poverty”. The notion highlights the systemic barriers faced by girls and women, which ultimately generate circumstances in which they cannot achieve financial success (Melo, 2019). For example, women who live in patriarchal families where parents do not invest in education may have difficulties applying for high-paying jobs in the future. Nonetheless, education is not the only aspect that women experience regarding challenges towards achieving economic stability.
Namely, a variety of factors that affect people based on gender can be attributed to this framework. For example, researchers illustrate that discrimination, inequality, and violence create a hierarchy in which women are prone to experiencing financial difficulties (Hazel & Kleyman, 2019). However, it is also vital to consider the factor of domestic labour, which is unfairly distributed.
Multiple researchers have examined the topic of domestic labour distribution, specifically during COVID-19. During COVID-19, the UK has implemented certain restrictions in regard to workplaces and schools. Hence, it was important for parents to divide responsibilities. However, domestic labour is unpaid, which implies that women were economically unstable and had to rely on their partners. Research conducted by Xue and McMunn has concluded that women were more likely to spend time on unpaid work, such as domestic labour (2021). Based on the feminist sociocultural framework, the finding correlates with the overall oppression and inequality of the division of tasks between men and women. Hence, women are expected to focus on elements that are not monetarily reimbursed. A similar study has illustrated that women spend up to 75% of their leisure time on domestic labour, which is significantly higher than their male partners (Zamberlan et al., 2022). Thus, it can be highlighted that females are less likely to work overtime and facilitate financial success for themselves due to the lack of equal chore distribution. Similarly, Oreffice and Quintana-Domeque mention women being the primary carers for children during the pandemic (2021). As a result, it is inevitable that inequalities persist when it comes to wages due to the differences in schedules and tasks exemplified by partners.
When considering the feminist framework as an explanation of poverty, it is also essential to determine the jobs that correlate with a female and male choice. Needless to say, certain positions are linked to higher earnings than others. Moreover, the feminist theory implies that children are conditioned to prefer certain classes and elements more than others solely based on gender. According to researchers, women are less likely to work in fields related to science, technology, and engineering (Thelwall et al., 2020). On the other hand, the position mostly helped by women are less financially profitable. The feminist framework implies that girls are subjected to choosing fields that are considered more feminine, which is why they earn less later on in life. Thus, the similarity with the Marxist ideology lies in the agreement that a class system is put in place to facilitate economic inequalities. However, while Marxists highlight that the system is based on production, the feminist framework implies that gender discrimination is at the root of differences in wages and earning potential. Moreover, the frameworks are centred around the idea of profit maximization (Bayliss et al., 2020). On the one hand, the variables are capitalistic, yet it can be argued that women suffer the damages as companies are to pay for the statutory maternity leave, which is a financial inconvenience for employers.
Conclusion
Poverty is a notion that is being addressed differently based on the socioeconomic framework. Marxism explains poverty through the lens of capitalism and production. Thus, when those producing are less financially potent than those controlling the process, a caste system is created in which the bourgeoisie is economically stable while the proletariat is not. From a functionalist perspective, poverty is an element facilitated by various different social elements. However, the view implies that low income is needed to create a balanced society. The feminist viewpoint exemplifies that poverty is a result of gender-based barriers installed in societies. Nonetheless, the phenomenon remains an essential problem that can be addressed based on the socioeconomic perspective one applied to explain the term and define its characteristics and possible outcomes.
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