Introduction
African studies touch upon a variety of issues that explain the quality of life in African countries, the worth of international relationships, and the impact of historical achievements on modern cultures and traditions. By its nature, the African continent is rich with multiple natural resources like gold, oil, iron, and diamonds. Still, being so rich and promising land, many African countries with their citizens suffer from poverty. Observing global ratings or watching entertainment programs, an ordinary American or European person may be surprised by the conditions under which African people have to live. The level of surprise may be significantly increased as soon as more information about the country’s natural richness is obtained. Although there are many regions of the continent that represent wealthy markets like South Africa, Nigeria, Morocco, and Egypt, the number of poor countries like Somalia, Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, and Eritrea prevails. Therefore, the topic of poverty in Africa remains common for analysis in current studies, and professional scholars and researchers want to find out the reasons for such a poor quality of life among local habitants.
One of the possible explanations for African poverty is the impact of exploitation by more powerful countries. There is a thought that Africa cannot get rid of its financial problems and increase the quality of life due to a long history of its unequal international relationships. Colonialism has left certain negative traces on the development of the African continent. That is why it is important to understand the extent to which African poverty may be explained by the presence of more powerful countries around the world. A preliminary answer to which question is “NO” – other countries should not be considered as the causes of poverty in Africa. External exploitation is not as dangerous for African citizens as exploitation and poor management of the local government.
Two main sources will be utilized and analyzed to investigate the chosen topic and answer the question with confidence. The article “Oil, Corruption and the Resource Curse” was written by Nicholas Shaxson, and the chapter “Landlocked with Bad Neighbors” was taken from the book The Bottom Billion by Paul Collier. Both authors introduce strong arguments to support their positions: Shaxson finds an excuse in poor government (1124), and Collier uses the shortage of being landlocked with bad neighbors as his explanation of poverty in Africa (55). Relying on the information from these sources, several points can be used to support the idea of non-involvement of powerful countries in the progress of African poverty. The role of local governments cannot be ignored because authorities are responsible for all managerial decisions in their countries. The relationships between leaders and ordinary citizens have to be discussed to show what people could get and actually get. Finally, the strategies with the help of which the situation may be changed should be identified to clarify the future for African countries, and if neighbors are a constant variable, leaders come and go.
Shaxson’s Article
In the modern world, there are many countries that depend on their mineral resources. Some regions use their natural richness correctly and develop profitable relationships with different companies globally. However, the example of Africa proves that it is possible to possess extensive volumes of natural resources and stay poor. In his article, Shaxson focuses on analyzing of the main problems in Africa related to corruption rooted in oil discovery. The author decides to evaluate the role of the government in the country’s development and compare what citizens expect to get from their geographical location. Shaxson’s reading aims at describing three elements of the African economy that are centered on poverty. First, oil booms provoke economic booms and declines, depending on the quality of leadership (Shaxson 1123). Second, the curse of mineral dependence or the resource curse proves that nations fail to use their discoveries wisely. Finally, such opportunities and inabilities result in less democracy and more corruption (Shaxson 1123). The misuse of power but not poor neighbors only should be regarded and improved to stabilize people’s faith and guide them properly.
In this reading, several points have to be identified to support the argument that exploitation by more powerful countries does not actually explain African poverty. Shaxson underlines that the discovery of natural resources usually reinforces patronage politics and attracts the attention of unnecessary visitors (1123). However, instead of neighbors’ participation, the author discusses the role of the government and its corruption. The policies offered by the bad government are the key insight in the political economy (Shaxson 1128). The government is responsible for imposing austerity, budget control, and the establishment of tax havens (Shaxson 1133). The decisions made by local authorities and the distribution of resources determine the success of Africa, and instead of considering the role and interventions of more powerful countries in the governance, African leaders must re-evaluate their areas of influence.
The promotion of queue policies and relationships between leaders and ordinary citizens become another major contributor to poverty. Shaxson defines two types of orders that are present in human life: physical (when people follow the rules relying on someone’s examples) and mental (when people believe in the effectiveness of this idea) (1126). This approach helps describe the main characteristics of interpersonal relationships and cultural values within a country or the whole continent. It was correctly mentioned that if a society cheats or steals, individuals do not try to stop it but rather join this easily available process (Shaxson 1126). The same happens to a country when the government (leaders) shows a bad example for people; the latter do not want to solve the problem but try to gain benefits the same way. Poverty is never a one-sided process, and cooperation between the authority and local residents is necessary. Neighbors or more powerful countries cannot change someone’s behavior or perception. Therefore, Africa should not search for an explanation of its poverty in other nations’ impact but look at itself and decide what it can do for its people at the moment.
At the same time, one should understand that corruption does not exist independently. There are many outside factors that make people steal, lie, and use resources for their own purposes. In his discussion, Shaxson specifies that corruption must be viewed from not “just a domestic but a global perspective” and recognizes the impact of international financial flows (1125). There are many financial organizations in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Switzerland, which expands the root of the poverty problem in Africa. Therefore, the possibility that some African countries could serve as “slush funds” for secret financial operations exists (Shaxson 1130). More powerful countries like France, China, and American might use African natural sources to solve their problems, stabilize their global positions, and, at the same time, neglect the needs of the local population. Regarding this development of the events, some people could think that Africa remains poor because of unsanctioned and damaging exploitative interventions by stronger countries.
Despite the presence of such a controversial factor in this discussion, the influence of outside countries is not as strong as the one imposed by local authorities. Although international partners may challenge the economy, the government has to evaluate all pros and cons of their cooperation and make final decisions. People expect their leaders to protect their interests and create the most favorable conditions for their development. The establishment of international relationships is vital for many countries. However, if there is an unstable situation in the country, not many organizations find it reasonable to invest and cooperate. Therefore, even if Shaxson believes in external pressure on corruption not from citizens but other participants, domestic outrage and opportunities are also meaningful in his analysis (1134). It is always easy to search for culprits outside the country and use international assets to explain regional failures. The task of Africa is to recognize its natural richness and use it locally first. Only when all citizens and organizations are satisfied and enriched, a possibility to share resources with others may be considered.
Collier’s Chapter
The position of Collier in his book has certain similarities with and differences from the one offered by Shaxson in his article. On the one hand, Collier states that a good government plays a certain role in the development of landlocked countries and participates in national growth and improvements (62). On the other hand, the arguments for African dependency on neighbors are strong, and the author suggests attracting outside aid and creating investor-friendly environments to promote resource revenues (Collier 62). He uses the results of his findings and those achieved in cooperation with professors and economists like Steve O’Connell or Tony Venables. The conclusions are made to prove that geography matters and some countries are rich because they are geographically more fortunate (Collier 57). The chapter describes the positions of several countries in comparison to Africa’s location and proves that landlocked countries have a chance to overcome poverty by improving their coastal access, increasing spillovers, and encouraging remittances (Collier 59, 61). All these strategies and facts seem to be enough to demonstrate how neighbors affect the country’s development, but the level of exploitation by more powerful countries is not determined.
Despite the main idea of the chosen chapter about bad neighbors, several arguments to support the position of this research paper can be found. First, Collier mentions that “Africa’s landlocked countries are not oriented toward their neighbors” (57). In most cases, local policies remain “inward-looking” or globally oriented (Collier 57). Therefore, Africa is free to use its natural resources to enter the world market and use neighbors for their benefits. There is no obligation to share their richness with others or take exploitation for granted. Neighbors do not dictate the rules according to which Africa develops but create opportunities for further development. As a result, the role of the government has to be identified again. Local authorities lead the extraction of natural resources and distribute them throughout the countries. Even the most powerful countries cannot overcome land locks that existing in Africa. Residents decide how to treat their resources and have more chances to protect themselves without evident bounding with global leaders.
Humans present one of the major resources in the African continent. In one of Collier’s strategies, it is said that the willingness of governments determines the society’s talent and opportunities (61). As soon as local people get the necessary education, their employment supports the growth of the region. Instead of hiring unskilled workers from neighboring countries, it is better to have independent resources and facilitate job choices (Collier 61). The example of the Philippines, where the government spends money on education and the improvement of skills, allows the country to join high-income economies (Collier 61). The same can be done in some African countries where the government investigates its options in the fields of education, politics, health care, and social services to promote cooperation and mutual progress. In other words, Africa has enough resources and people to introduce their own industries and services. People have already experienced the challenges of poverty and are ready to change something in their lives. It is high time to rely on other developing countries’ examples and local resources and deal with damaging corruption, poverty, and shortsightedness.
Many landlocked countries demonstrate good results in different industries and businesses even if they are resource-scarce. Collier mentions the example of Switzerland with its geographical restrictions and richness (55). He admits that neighboring Germany and Italy turns out to be the cause of its success and no poverty-related problems. Compared to Switzerland with its stable supporters, Uganda borders with Kenya (stagnation), Rwanda (genocide), Sudan (a civil war), and Somalia (collapse) (Collier 55). The evaluation of global ratings, the quality of life, and an overall image of a country prove that geographical locations and international relationships matter. Still, Austria and Luxemburg are also landlocked countries, and their powerful neighbors like France or Germany might easily exploit their resources. However, these countries are rich, and their statuses are mostly explained by the possibility of the government to define the most appropriate industries for export. When the coal industry of Luxemburg was undermined by cheap Chinese products, the government focused on the education of people in the sphere of banking investment. When the country is able to prove itself as a strong and confident business partner, neighbors will be interested in cooperation but never exploitation.
Conclusion
In general, there are many opinions about African poverty and the inability of some countries to use their natural resources properly. On the continent, 48 countries have to share their land resources, and 17 of them remain landlocked. The problem of exploitation by a more powerful nation was evident several centuries ago, and now, Africa is a free trade area. Therefore, the role of the government cannot be ignored in regard to national development and growth. Each country has already chosen its leader and expects to be supported in various directions. Collier and Shaxson recognize the impact of neighbors on certain African countries, but they do not prove exploitation as the main reason for poor living conditions. African land is rich in different minerals, and many European countries are ready to negotiate and offer good trade conditions. The power of Africa is in its citizens and local authority figures. As soon as domestic problems and concerns are solved, it is possible to take a step and eradicate poverty at least to some extent.
References
Collier, Paul. The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Shaxson, Nicholas. “Oil, Corruption and the Resource Curse.” International Affairs, vol. 83, no. 6, 2007, pp. 1123-140.