Introduction
The journal article titled “Alterations in Brain and Immune Functions Produced by Mindfulness Meditation” a randomized, control study carried out by Richard Davidson and others published in the Psychosomatic Medicine, 2003, to evaluate the effects on the brain and immune function of a well-known and widely used 8-week clinical training program in mindfulness meditation applied in a work environment with healthy employees. The purpose of this clinical trial was to explore the underlying changes in biological activities that are associated with reported changes in mental and physical health as a result of meditation. The results of this study will be specifically used to evaluate the use of meditation techniques. There are two types of meditation namely cultic and non-cultic type which was developed specifically for clinical studies use.
Many research papers purport to support the notion that relaxation and reduction of stress that arises from mediation have prophylactic and therapeutic health effects. In this particular study, the authors concentrated on emotion-related brain activity due to the fact that other studies have shown that meditation is effective in reducing anxiety and also increases positive effects. The authors further say that, “we have established that the frontal regions of the brain exhibit a specialization for certain forms of positive and negative emotion” (p. 564). Other studies have also shown that some specific positive emotions and in people with dispositional positive effects do have left-sided anterior activation. They therefore hypothesized that subjects practicing meditation should also demonstrate increased left-sided activation as compared to the waitlist control group in this study. In this study, they also attempt to establish the role played by meditation in boosting body immunity. This is a result of other scientific studies that have shown close relationship between meditation and enhanced immune reactions. In order to prove this hypothesis, the authors vaccinated all the subjects in their study (waitlist control group and the participants) with influenza vaccine. This was done at the end of the eight-week meditation program.
Discussion
Meditative techniques have been in use across the world and their value to heal and promote peace has been known and has been in [practice for thousands of years. Meditation according to Ogwelolo, (2007) is defined as a process by which one attempts to go beyond “thinking” into a deeper state of awareness. Meditation is an activity that dates back to several hundreds of years. It was mostly practiced by traditional religious groups such as the Buddhists and other famous world religions.
The authors of this article appreciate the fact that there has been a widespread increase in the use of meditation in hospitals and academic medical centers for patients presenting with different types of conditions such as chronic pain and illnesses. More studies have been carried out to validate and authenticate the effectiveness and efficiency of meditation as an integrative and alternative medicine. The researchers concentrate on emotion-related brain activity due to the fact that many clinical trials have shown that meditation decreases anxiety and increases positive effects. A study carried out by the University of Alberta, (2007) titled ‘Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research’ found out that some forms of meditation techniques reduce blood pressure and stress in clinical populations. The studies further showed that different types of meditation such as Yoga increased vocal creativity and significantly reduced heart rate, BP and cholesterol levels. The author of this study, Ospina explains that “Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results.”
In another similar study to this one carried out by Cahn and Polich (2006) titled ‘meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies, showed that when taken together, neuroimaging studies, EEG and ERP; meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulated cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. These results are also demonstrated by Davidson’s study as will be shown in this paper.
In the recent past years there have been many controlled clinical trials of mindfulness meditation which is basically known as detached awareness of experience. Most of these studies have used co-interventions such as cognitive therapy and have largely not used active controls. Manocha et al (2002) demonstrated that patients with poorly controlled asthma taking part in Sahaja meditation (passive witnessing of thoughts) showed positive results but differences were not maintained after sixty days. The study therefore suggested that the practice of Sahaja meditation has to be practiced continuously but in a regulated manner for outcome to be sustained over a long period of time.
Experimental Design
The study used 48 right-handed subjects who were employees of a biotechnology corporation in Madison, Wisconsin of which 41 completed some of the measures for at least two of the assessments as explained below. Twenty five subjects (n = 25; 19 female) were randomly assigned to meditation group while a waitlist control group (n = 16; 10 female) were recruited. Brain electrical action was assessed and recorded before and instantaneously after, and then 4 months after an 8-week training program in mindfulness meditation. In order to ensure quality of the study, a waiting control group (n = 16) was also tested at the same time with the meditators. The participants were immunized with influenza vaccine at the end of the 8 week period.
Brain electrical activity (EEG) and EOG was recorded during the taking of baseline information depending on the response to negative and positive emotion induction. Eight one-minute baseline trials were conducted with the eyes covered and opened four times each during EEG was recorded across 27 sites distributed across the scalp and referenced to linked ears. In addition to this, electroencephalography was also noted after a 1-minute period before and 3-minute period after the participants recorded/noted down three of the most positive and negative experiences in their life. The EEG was parsed into 1.024-second epochs, overlapped by 50% and then processed with the use of a fast Hartley transform method to derive measures of spectral power density in the α-band which is inversely related to activation (p. 565). Asymmetric activation was then initiated.
The subjects were given positive and negative affective scales in a state form after every period of writing. A PANAS characteristic form and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (SSTAI) in characteristic form were also given in addition to the subjects at every examination session. The meditation subjects were also asked to submit daily reports of the regularity and number of minutes and skills of formal meditation techniques. Blood was then drawn from the recruits at 3-5 weeks and then again at 8-9 weeks after vaccination with the influenza virus vaccine with purpose of examining antibody titers in response to the vaccine using the hemagglutination inhibition assay.
Subjects in both the waitlist and the meditation group were assessed at the same time and after the assessment period the subjects in the waitlist were given an 8-week training session that was similar to that given to the subjects in the meditation group. The MBSR model that was originally developed at the University of Massachusetts Medical Centre was used to deliver training program by J.K.-Z. The training program consisted of weekly meetings lasting an average of 3hours per class; a silent seven-hour retreat that was held during week six was also done alongside these weekly classes. Meditation practices were also carried out at home and basically consisted of formal and informal meditative practices of which the subjects were instructed to carry out for one hour daily, 6 days weekly. This was done with the guidance of guided audiotapes.
Statistical Data analysis was based on the relations between both groups and the time (Times 1-3). Multivariate analysis of variance was computed for each of the four anterior asymmetry measures, linear trends were also tested to examine main effects and the interaction. Finally, follow-up ANOVAs on the separate time periods were performed.
Results
Affect and Anxiety Measures
The study reported that there was a significant group X time interaction on a measure trait anxiety with the Spielberger state-trait anxiety inventory accounted for by reduction in anxiety for subjects in the meditation group from time 1 to Time 2. The study further reports that there was no significant Group X Time interaction on the positive and negative affect scale. In addition to this, there was also a substantial decrease in trait negative affect with the meditators showing less negative effect at Times 1 and 3 compared with their negative effect at Time 1.The control group subjects showed no change over time in negative affect.
Brain Electrical Activity Measures
The study reported that for the baseline period assessments, there was a marginally significant Group-Time linear trend and a significant main effect for Group. It further reports that there was a significant Group-Time interaction for the Time 1–3 comparison and a marginally significant Group – Time interaction for the Time 1-Time 2 comparison for the central leads (C3/4). At Time 1, no group differences were present at baseline for any region. At both Time 2 and Time 3, meditators demonstrated considerably greater relative left-sided stimulation at the central sites (C3/4) compared with the wait-list control group. The omnibus MANOVA conducted on the positive emotion stimulation condition demonstrated a marginally significant overall Group -Time interaction for the anterior temporal (T3/4) electrode leads. When the evaluation of transformation from baseline for each time phase was examined, there was a significant Group-Time interaction for the Time 1-Time 2 comparison. These similar relations for the Time 1-Time 3 comparison were marginally significant and in the same direction.
As a reaction to the positive emotion stimulation at Time 1, no group differences were present in any region. However, meditators showed a significant increase in left-sided anterior temporal stimulation from Time 1 to Time 2, whereas controls showed no change. There was no other significant Group – Time interactions for any other electrode site for the positive emotion induction. In response to the negative effect stimulation, the compilation MANOVA showed a marginally significant linear trend for the Group -Time interaction for the anterior temporal leads. The Group-Time relations for the Time 1-Time 2 contrast for the anterior temporal region (T3/4) was again in the similar direction as the other interactions, but not significant. In reaction to the negative emotion stimulation for the mid leads, an omnibus MANOVA showed a slightly significant Group – Time interaction, along with a marginally significant linear tendency for this interaction. There were no cluster disparities in any section at Time 1. At Times 2 and 3, subjects in the meditation group showed significantly greater left-sided activation (C3/C4) compared with subjects in the control group. The meditators showed a significant rise in left-sided activation in this region from Time 1 to Time and Time 3.There were no group differences present for any of the posterior electrodes sites for any of the conditions.
Influenza Vaccine Antibody Titers
The results demonstrated that participants showed a significantly greater rise in antibody titers from the 4 to the 8-week blood draw compared to wait for list participants in reaction to the influenza vaccine.
Relations among Measures
Meditation group subjects who showed greater increase in left-sided activation from Time 1 and 2 demonstrated a greater rise in antibody titers with no significant relationship between these variables for the control group. There was also no significant association between the measures of practice and any of the biological or self–report measures.
Conclusion
From the above results, it is evident that meditation is effective and efficient in the reduction of anxiety, negative affect and increase in positive affect. Just as in the results of another study that was carried out by Davidson that was posted on the Washington Post web site by Marc Kaufman (Washington Post Staff Writer) Monday, January 3, 2005; Page A05 titled ‘meditation gives a brain a charge study finds’ reports that Davidson concludes from the research that “meditation not only changes the workings of the brain in the short term, but also quite possibly produces permanent changes.”
The results of this study have shown that meditation can produce increases in relative left-sided anterior activation that are associated with reduction in anxiety and negative affect and increases in positive affect. At the beginning of the study, the researchers had a predicted hypothesis that they would find significant changes in prefrontal as well as central electrode locations, this was not as most consistent findings were observed at the central leads (C3/C4) which is an area that they had earlier observed reliable affect-related asymmetries. This shortcoming is downplayed by them when they state that:
“The fact that there was no significant increase in dispositional positive affect in the meditation group may be related to the failure to detect increases in left prefrontal activation. It may well be that if the duration and/or intensity of the intervention were increased; the increases would be observed in both positive affects and left prefrontal activation” (p. 569).
It is worth noting that there was an increase in left-sided activation with training in the meditation group in response to both the positive and negative affect induction. In relation to this, the authors have suggested that due to the increasing results on clinical trials and research studies on neural basis of emotion regulation, the left-sided anterior activation is associated with more adaptive responding to depressing and or stressful events.
The study has demonstrated explicit effect of meditation on an Vivo measure of immune function with the finding reflecting a more rapid peak rise in antibody titers among the meditators than in the controls. This positive change in immune function was highly demonstrated in subjects showing larger shift toward left-sided activation. In another study carried out by Waelde and his colleagues (2004) to evaluate yoga and meditation interventions for dementia caregiver stress showed positive results in reduction of anxiety. The caregivers also showed significant reduction in depression. This study just as in Davidson’s other studies as explained earlier has demonstrated that meditation is effective in management of anxiety, and depression.
This study was limited in some ways which according to the available data on this study is that the study population that was used is relatively small and therefore not representative enough. This therefore greatly reduced the statistical data collected in this study hence a limited statistical power. This is revealed from the results that have shown that the hypothesized effects were failed to reach significance levels. Another limitation is that the study was carried out in work environment with subjects who were engaged in their duties hence this could have had negative impact on the subjects and the study. Several years of practicing meditation have shown the connection between its practice and the process of healing.
Meditation is a powerful weapon against both medical and psychological conditions. Although meditation has been practiced by many religions since time immemorial, its use is being rejuvenated in management of different types of conditions. Some of these conditions are stress, anxiety, pain, cancer, influenza, cardiac conditions and HIV/AIDS where it has been shown to greatly reduce effects associated with stigma and depression. On physical level, the practice of meditation as a therapeutic measure reduces cholesterol levels, improving patterns of breathing in asthma patients, helping in reducing problems associated with gastrointestinal digestive, and holistic management and control of chronic pain. Incorporation of meditation in the mainstream health care system is therefore called for and it should be integrated into national health care system of course of with laws to licensure practitioners and to regulate its practice.
We can therefore conclude based on the results of this study that over the short period of 8 weeks of mindfulness meditation, there have been positive effects on the brain and immune function and because of the above-mentioned limitations, more clinical studies need to be done to provide evidence-based practice on both therapeutic advantages and adverse effects of this intervention. More scientific and clinical trials will ensure a wide base of scientifically approved literature on the uses of meditation; this will ensure evidence-based practice (EBP) and undiscovered uses of meditation will also be discovered.
References
Cahn, B. R., and Polich, J. (2006). Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psych Bull, 132(2): 180-211. Web.
Davidson, R. J., et al (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine 65: 564-570.
Ogwelolo, G. H., (2007). The practice of meditation: Therapeutic effects. Nairobi, Kenya: MediBooks Publishers.
Ospina, M., & Bond, K. (2007). Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research. University of Alberta. Science Daily. Web.
Washington Post, (2005). Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds. Web.
Manocha, R., et al (2002). Sahaja yoga in the management of moderate to severe asthma: a randomised controlled trial. Thorax, 57: 110-5.
Waelde, L. C., Thompson, L. & Gallagher-Thompson, D. (2004). A pilot study of a yoga and meditation intervention for dementia caregiver stress. ,60(6):677-87. Web.