Introduction
Abdulkarim Soroush is an Iranian scholar in Quranic studies feted for his contributions to the secularization of Islam. In addition to offering diverse interpretations of the Quran in his writings and lectures, Soroush is also an ardent promoter of pro-democracy policies in his native Iran. One of the main influences on his arguments is his scholarly work at the University of London, where he earned degrees in Chemistry and Philosophy (Anshori, 2020). Western philosophers, such as Karl Popper, and Iranian scholars, including Muhammad Iqbal, greatly influence Soroush.
Born in 1945, Soroush was recognized by Time Magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in 2005 (Hartung, 2012). As a leading Islamic scholar, Soroush has opined on one of the greatest questions in Quranic studies: “Is the Quran a word of God or of a Prophet?” (Rexhepi & Memishi, 2020, p. 53). Different Muslim scholars and clerics have proposed various theological interpretations on how the Quran was revealed to humanity. This essay will focus on Abdulkarim Soroush’s understanding of the Revelation of the Holy Quran by analyzing his works and those of contemporary scholars on this subject.
Divine Revelation in Islam
A thorough understanding of the concept of Revelation must lay the foundation for analyzing Soroush’s opinions. Mirdamadi (2019) highlights the critical significance of “revelation” in the context of Quranic understanding. Divine Revelation refers to the discovery and reception of an instruction from God meant for his people by a chosen subject, such as the Prophet Muhammad, in the context of Islam. Divine Revelation can occur in various forms, including dreams, visions, and direct instructions from angels (Mirdamadi, 2019).
The Prophet receives and conveys the message to God’s people in a process of divine communication. Typically, the message is stored in a religious book, such as the Quran, to inform future generations of God’s instructions. The question, therefore, arises as to how flexible our understanding of the Revelation from God is, given that it is subject to significant human influence throughout.
Classical approaches to the Quran are steadfast in their understanding of the Quran as the unquestionable Word of God. Anshori (2020) points out that the Islamic philosophy of science has historically been conflated with the standard practices of the Muslim religion dogmatically. In particular, the exegesis of the Quran has been treated as unquestionable truth from God, rather than as a product of human reflection worthy of evaluation and evolution.
Rexhepi and Memishi (2020) observe a dichotomy in Islamic thought: some scholars consider the Quranic Revelation an exclusive function of spiritual experience, while others view it as philosophical and therefore subject to reasoned judgment. They note that the representatives of Islam, such as clerics and Ayatollahs, are firmly in the former group.
Notably, Anshori (2020) notes that Islam, unlike other monotheistic religions, does not consider the role of an intermediary between Allah and mankind. As such, the Quranic Revelation has historically been regarded as Divine and is believed to stem directly from God Himself. Thus, Muslims have uncritically accepted the teachings of the fuqaha or Islamic teachers as directly from God himself. Soroush challenges this thought directly and provides a well-rationed argument for his alternative understanding.
Soroush’s Interpretation of the Quranic Revelation
Soroush’s controversial opinion on the Revelation of the Quran is documented in his 2009 theorization titled The Expansion of Prophetic Experience: Essays on Historicity, Contingency and Plurality in Religion. In particular, Soroush critically analyzes Quranic teachings and concludes that the Prophet is inseparable from the Revelation (Soroush et al., 2009). Soroush opines that the Word of God as recorded in the Quran originates from the Prophet Muhammad, not Allah Himself (Mirdamadi, 2019). In his theorization, Soroush points out that Muhammad is not merely a passive bearer of Allah’s message but a crucial protagonist in its Revelation and communication.
Prophet Muhammad is the originator of the Revelation, as he is filled with God’s essence through a largely spiritual process that creates and informs the Revelation. Thus, Prophet Muhammad is a vessel that recognizes God’s presence as a precursor to Revelation. Soroush compares the Prophet to a poet who recognizes the presence of an external force inside and proceeds to act on the force’s impulses to create a revelation (Soroush et al., 2009). Crucially, this theory places Muhammad at the center of Revelation and gives another role to God, as will be discussed subsequently.
According to Soroush, God is the divine spark that ignites and inspires Revelation in Muhammad. Specifically, God overwhelms Muhammad and, as a consequence, creates the phenomenon of Revelation in Muhammad. Therefore, God is responsible for the process of Revelation but not the Revelation itself (Murdamadi, 2019). The Revelation is removed from God and cannot be directly ascribed to Him. The content of the Revelation is Muhammad’s, and it is His Word, not the Word of God.
However, because Muhammad was filled with God’s presence at the time of Revelation, one can metaphorically speak of the Word as being God’s, although it is not true in the literal sense. Muhammad’s words are therefore recorded in the Quran following his Revelation (Soroush et al., 2009). Soroush challenges the conventional Islamic understanding, which argues that God reveals His message to Muhammad in the exact Arabic words recorded in the Quran. In addition, Soroush provides a rationale for his theory by theorizing on the nature of divine communication from God.
In his opinions about the nature of Revelation, Soroush relies heavily on philosophical principles. One of them is that God is beyond form and cannot be limited to human characteristics and actions. Arguments on the nature of divine communication are central to Soroush’s theorizations. He points out that God transcends all human traits and experiences and, by nature, cannot speak to human beings as human beings speak to one another.
Murdamadi (2019) notes that Soroush’s explanation applies to other human attributes attributed to God, as long as they are figurative and not literal. For instance, there are verses in the Quran that attribute physical features to God, such as eyes and hands. In such cases, there is consensus that these corporeal features are metaphorical with suitable attendant interpretations. Soroush points out that the same judgment should be applied when it is said that God spoke to someone, as this implies an entirely spiritual experience quite different from a literal interpretation (Soroush et al., 2002).
Another significant principle that Soroush borrows from Mulla Shirazi, an earlier Iranian scholar, is described as “the materiality and temporality of every accidental being” (Murdamadi, 2019, p. 156). Specifically, for every narration in the Quran, there must have been physical and time-based properties preceding it. Soroush augments this principle by treating the process of Revelation as an accidental event. Thus, for the process of Revelation to start, there must have been material and temporal elements preceding it.
Moreover, Soroush points out that the content of Revelation is often underpinned by temporal and spatial features (Mirdamadi, 2019). In particular, Revelation exhibits characteristics such as an Arabic presentation, as well as features drawn from the time and place where Muhammad received the Revelation. Since God is not bound by such trivialities that are human concerns, the Revelation can only be ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad.
While Soroush’s opinions on the Revelation of the Quran are revolutionary for Islam, they are arrived at after a thorough study of the Islamic religion. Dabbagh (2022) discusses Soroush’s theory of religion titled The Theoretical Contraction and Expansion of Religious Knowledge. In this regard, Soroush draws a theoretical distinction between religion and religious knowledge. He points out that religion is considered divine and infallible, and therefore cannot be challenged, whereas religious knowledge is considered human and conditional.
As such, religious knowledge is continually shaped by other epistemologies, including the natural sciences and philosophy (Soroush, 1998). Moreover, religious knowledge is diverse and gives rise to the many sects of Islam depending on the particular epistemology. Since Revelation is by itself silent, Muslims of each period must lend their interpretations to it for it to flourish. As such, Soroush treats the Revelation of the Quran as a facet of Islamic religious knowledge and applies phenomenological methods to understand it.
Initially, he notes that Revelation is a mystical experience that inadvertently diminishes the significance of the Revelation (Dabbagh, 2022). Later, he considers a revelation similar to a poem as discussed in his works and by Mirdamadi (2019). Much later, Soroush compares the process of Revelation to experiencing a dream. This phenomenological analysis gives Revelation an important biological-psychobiological texture.
In particular, the Prophet Muhammad’s communication of His Revelation to his readers depends on his moods. This philosophical understanding of Revelation explains the differences in the level of persuasion, detail, and explanation in different Surahs of the Quran (Dabbagh, 2022). At the same time, it supports Soroush’s theory that the Quran is the words of Prophet Muhammad.
Contemporary Implications and Criticisms of Soroush’s Theory
Soroush’s opinion on the Revelation of the Quran cannot be separated from his pro-democracy leanings. Rexhepi and Memishi (2020) note that Soroush emerged as one of the leading Iranian intellectuals following the 1979 Islamic Revolution. At this point in Iranian history, there was a need for a rethink of political and Islamic ideologies. Specifically, Iran was going to remain an Islamic state, but there was no consensus on whether democracy was appropriate. Notably, Islamic jurisprudence, referred to as “fiqh,” and democracy have historically been described as incompatible (Mirdamadi, 2019).
In answering this question, Soroush developed an understanding that bridged the gap between traditional and modern Islamic thought. Thus, Soroush’s opinion, as expressed in his work titled The Theory of Expansion and Contraction of Sharia, was a response to the particular needs of Iran at the time. His opinion on Revelation was not novel, as it was drawn from the teachings of earlier Islamic scholars. However, it was fitting for his time and advanced Islamic thought in a way that would have a tangible impact on the affairs of Iran and Muslims worldwide. It is also for these reasons that there are profound criticisms of Soroush’s opinion on the Revelation of the Quran.
Not surprisingly, Soroush’s opinions have gained significant traction among liberal social groups. Islamic feminists have embraced Soroush’s teachings widely as they offer a route to a greater appreciation of women in Muslim countries. Bakhshizadeh (2023) notes that women’s rights have historically taken a back seat in Islamic countries that espouse Sharia laws. Gender equality is unlikely to be attained under conservative Islamic regimes that consider the Quran the written and infallible Word of God.
Bakhshizadeh (2023) contextualizes Islamic feminists’ arguments within the writings of Soroush, specifically his opinion that the Revelation in the Quran is the Word of the Prophet Muhammad. In particular, the Islamic treatment of women as second-rate citizens and subordinate to men is based on an interpretation of the Quran, which is Muhammad’s Word. Drawing from the principle of the materiality and temporality of every accidental being adopted by Soroush, Prophet Muhammad’s Word is informed by the practices of his time, which were discriminatory towards women.
Bakhshizadeh (2023) notes that using Soroush’s understanding of the Quran is crucial in the adoption of inclusive attitudes, as religious knowledge would necessitate that Muslims adapt to the current body of knowledge on gender relations. This is one of the contemporary applications of Soroush’s interpretation of the Quran’s Revelation.
One of the major objections to Soroush’s theory on the Revelation of the Quran is the Quran itself. In particular, the Quran describes the phenomenon of Revelation as one that involves the delivery of God’s Word, directly from God, to the Prophet (Mirdamadi, 2019). There are several verses in support of this line of thought that showcase the Prophet Muhammad receiving God’s Word from the Angel Gabriel – a facet of the Quran that is not adequately explored by Soroush.
Additionally, Soroush is considered a negative theologian as far as he ascribes to the notion that Allah cannot be described using positive human attributes. For instance, he notes that human beings cannot possibly comprehend the nature of God and that God cannot have any human traits such as speech and sight. However, for his opinion to hold, this also applies to Prophet Muhammad, as Soroush admits.
In particular, Soroush argues that Muhammad was as severely limited in his comprehension of God as any other human, despite his unique status. This presumption lays the foundation for his argument that Prophet Muhammad could not have possibly received direct instruction from God (Mirdamadi, 2019). Specifically, Soroush points out that the limitations in the Quran reflect the Writer’s flaws in character and learning. However, such an assertion risks rendering the contents of the Quran as merely the ramblings of the Prophet, rather than being divine in any way. Therefore, some of Soroush’s assertions could undermine the very foundations on which Islam is based.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Revelation of the Quran is a fundamental question for both Islamic scholars and adherents to the faith. While the conventional understanding views the central role of God as the source of the Word in the Quran, the school of thought advanced by Abdulkarim Soroush posits that the Word of God is the Prophet’s Word.
As a philosopher, Soroush presents a well-reasoned argument, drawing on the insights of past Islamic scholars and phenomenological reasoning to support his position. For liberal Muslims such as Islamic feminists, Soroush’s writings hold much promise for social reforms in gender relations and democracy. On the other hand, there are strong criticisms of his arguments by conservatives who feel that Soroush’s arguments are a critical deviation from the dogmatic and essential principles of Islam.
Reference List
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