Introduction
Communication is an important aspect of human existence. It enables people to share their thoughts, raise concerns, and connect with other individuals by listening to what they also have to offer. Rayudu (2010, p. 2) notes that desire to communicate with each other is a compulsive aspect of humans beings. He adds that communication is important because it fosters mutual understanding among people (Rayudu 2010, p. 2).
Due to this importance of communication, efforts have been made from all quarters to ensure that it gets to the highest possible level of effectiveness. In fact, research is still ongoing to enhance the effectiveness of communication. Studies that have been conducted show that for communication to be effective, there are fundamental elements that must be present. The key element of communication that is of interest to this essay is the system of symbols and signs that carries the message to the recipient. This system of symbols and signs constitutes what is known as language.
According to Medina (2005), language is an important aspect of communication because no communication can occur without a language. With respect to this assertion, any mechanism used to convey a message constitutes some form of language. However, the explicit definition of a language describes it as a system of communication that combines symbols to form words, which, in turn, form sentences (Medina 2005).
He adds that if communication is done by the use of a language, it is referred to as linguistic communication (Medina 2005, p. 2). Numerous languages, between 6000-7000, exist across the world due to the different ethnic and racial groupings into which humanity is divided. Some of these languages transcend national, regional, and continental frontiers and are spoken by large numbers of people across the globe while others are restricted to some small ethnic groupings.
The best example of a language that enjoys a global presence in English. In fact, according to van Gelderen (2006, p. 249), the English language has the widest reach across the globe. This attribute makes the language a subject of interest in this paper. In the various regions where the language is spoken, natives have personalised the language. As such, numerous varieties of the English language exist.
British English, American English, Australian English, South African English, Chinese English, and Aboriginal English are just a few examples of the varieties of the language. These varieties have areas of similarity as well as areas of difference that set them apart. This essay places Aboriginal English in context by exploring its salient features in a bid to understand the major areas of similarity and difference between this variety of the English language and the other varieties.
A brief history of the English language
As afore-mentioned, the English language is one of the dominant languages across the globe. The widespread use of the language has been facilitated by globalisation (van Gelderen 2006, p. 1). The English are estimated to have started around the year 449 when Germanic tribes such as the Frisians, the Angels, and the Saxons moved into the British Isles and intermingled with the Celts who occupied the region at the time.
Therefore, English started as a Germanic dialect that resulted from the interaction between the Angels and the Celts (van Gelderen 2006). In fact, the word English originated from the word Angels, which was the Germanic tribe that is associated with the origin of the English language. Important to note, however, is the fact that despite English starting as a Germanic dialect, about half or so of its vocabulary is from the French or Latin languages (van Gelderen 2006, p. 3).
Over the years, the language has undergone massive evolution moving from its initial form to old English then followed by Middle English, then to early modern English and finally to the modern English language that exists today (van Gelderen 2006). The evolution was fostered by a variety of factors, but eventually, the English language as it is known today came into existence.
Its widespread presence across the world is majorly attributed to the spread of English speakers across the world. The people moved across the world due to a variety of reasons, but the most outstanding reason behind the spread of English is colonialism.
The British are touted to have colonised close to half of the entire world. In so doing, they imposed their language on their colonies to facilitate communication. Long after the colonial era, former British colonies still use the English language as their official language, albeit with some slight variations in some cases. Additionally, the advent of globalisation has strengthened the position of the English language over other languages across the world since it is the most widely used language across the globe. In essence, an individual who can communicate in English will be understood in almost all parts of the world today.
Aboriginal English in Perspective
As with all other varieties of English, Aboriginal English is a blend between the English language and the language of the native Australians. In other words, the word Aboriginal denotes the people or animals that originally occupied a particular place. However, the term is mostly used to denote the original inhabitants of Australia. Therefore, any time the word is mentioned, Australia automatically comes to mind. As such, for purposes of clarity, Aboriginal English, as discussed in this essay, refers to the English of native Australians.
Origin of Aboriginal English
According to Malcolm (1994, p. 289), at the onset of European occupation of Australia in 1788, there existed about 250 different languages under use by the native Australians or Aboriginals. Out of this number, about 160 Aboriginal vernaculars survive to date. It is important to point out that some of them are under serious pressure from other Aboriginal languages or the English language. Malcolm (1994) argues that three modern Aboriginal languages, which include Aboriginal English and two Creole varieties, currently dominate Australia. However, such details are of little interest to the essay and shall not be delved into. Nonetheless, the background provides a basis for understanding the origin and development of Aboriginal English.
The origin of Aboriginal English has no single straight forward description in literature. Rather, several perspectives have been advanced to explain the origin of the dialect. This state of affairs could be due to lack of proper documentation of the development of the language at the time it developed. Priman (2004, p. 13) argues that the first point of language contact between Aboriginals and the British was Pidgin English.
Arguably, this approach was the only possible way through which the two groups would have been able to communicate. Malcolm (1994) agrees with this assertion by noting that during the systematic colonisation of Australia, Pidgin must have risen in different parts of the continent to facilitate communication between Aboriginals and the British. In this line of argument, Malcolm (1994) contends that the Australian Pidgin English blended with the Pidgin English of non-Australian workers such as Asian immigrant labour to form what is today referred to as Creole because, technically, it is also descendent from the English language.
Malcolm (1994) describes this process as ‘Creolisation.’ In pursuit of the same line of argument, he adds that after this process, since there emerged two varieties of Creole, the Torres Straight and the Cape York versions, Malcolm (1994) argues that due to the need for inter-group communication, ‘decreolisation’ of the two Creole varieties occurred to form Aboriginal English. He, therefore, defines Aboriginal English as the dialect of English that is spoken by the Aboriginal and Torres Straight people for communication among themselves. It is important to point out that within these two groups, various sub-groups use the two varieties of Creole. As such, Aboriginal English serves as a common language for both.
This line of argument seems plausible because going by the number of languages that existed in Australia at the onset of colonisation, a common language had to develop to unite all the people. Thus, the process occurred in stages and culminated in Aboriginal English. Priman (2004) points out that there is a distinction between Standard Australian English and Aboriginal English due to the Aboriginals’ desire to retain their identity while embracing a foreign language.
Therefore, Aboriginal English and the two varieties of Creole fall in the category of modern Aboriginal languages of Australia. A Standard English speaker cannot understand some elements of Aboriginal English. These explanations almost seem speculative, but they have been accepted in literature since there is no study that has been conducted to investigate the historical development of Aboriginal English.
The Social Issues Associated with Aboriginal English
In the social context, Aboriginal English has wreaked havoc in many spheres. Those associated with the dialect are sometimes perceived negatively because of the extricable link between language and culture. Aboriginal English speakers are mostly native Australians, who despite the Western influence, still maintain most of their indigenous cultural aspects.
In schools, a stereotype has been constructed around Aboriginal children concerning their language and demeanour. In overall terms, Aboriginal English is considered bad because it is measured against Standard English. As such, the language is discouraged over claims that it adversely affects the ability of its speakers to use Standard English in speech and writing. For example, teachers across Australia believe that Aboriginal children require remedial teaching to liberate them from the influence of the dialect and the associated culture.
Such a belief is propagated by, among other factors, the fact that non-indigenous teachers ask the children questions and expect straight answers. In contrast to this expectation, the Aboriginal child is culturally oriented not to give straight answers and may choose to remain silent. While it is perfectly permissible to remain silent for the Aboriginal child, the teacher may interpret it as a sign of rudeness or simply bad behaviour. Coupled with the different meanings that the teacher and the child may draw from each other’s speech, Aboriginal English is an issue of concern in the Australian system of education.
Elsewhere, the legal field also faces challenges that are caused by the dialect. The challenges are also associated with the link between language and culture. Priman (2004, p. 14) argues that in circumstances that require an individual to respond by giving a yes or no answer, an Aboriginal person may only give yes responses regardless of the question that is asked especially if the questioner is a person in authority. In this respect, it may be difficult to extract any meaningful testimony from them even if they understand the language used to question them.
In some cases, the difference of meanings drawn from the same by an Aboriginal and a Standard English speaker also causes language barrier problems for the legal systems. Further, a court may require an Aboriginal person to cite a specific time at which an incident occurred, yet they do not do so. Rather, they use specific occurrences to estimate time, for example, if an incident occurs and then someone leaves, an Aboriginal will use the person’s departure as the reference time.
Finally, since language includes gestures and other expressions, non-native Australians expect more eye contact when conversing with another person. However, Aboriginal Australians do not encourage eye contact while conversing because it is considered rude. Therefore, communication between these two groups of people is bound to be faced with challenges because while the Aboriginal Australian avoids eye contact to show respect, a non-native may conclude that the person has something to hide or they are lying or something of the sort. Many other examples of social issues that revolve around Aboriginal English and its speakers exist, but these three will suffice for this essay.
Political Issues Associated with Aboriginal English
Medina (2005) argues that a language should in one way or another have an army associated with it. This assertion seems to imply that the people who speak a particular language should form a state of their own so that they have their own army. Using Europe as an example, this system is loosely applicable. Most of the European states were originally monolingual. Other languages came in later as a result of immigration and similar dynamics. Thus, Medina’s argument seems to have been inspired by a system that was used to demarcate Europe.
The rest of the world did not have the privilege of setting its own political boundaries along similar lines. As such, some national boundaries enclose hundreds of different groups together to form states. Under such circumstances, however, the government is supposed to recognise or acknowledge the languages of its people. Unfortunately, Aboriginal English does not enjoy such a status in Australia. Despite its widespread use across the country, it does not appear anywhere among the documented languages of Australia.
Standard English is considered the official of Australia and is spoken by over 95 percent of Australians (Blair and Collins 2001). Numerous other dialects are used alongside Standard English, but Aboriginal English is not recognised among them. Although there have been campaigns to push for the documentation of the language as one of Australian language and a recognised dialect of English, this has not happened yet. As such, the designation of Aboriginal English as ‘bad English’ stems from the status of the language in Australia.
Features of Aboriginal English
Like any other language, the key features of Aboriginal English manifest themselves in the vocabulary, grammar, and the sounds. Priman (2004, p. 13) notes that Aboriginal English, like other languages, has vocabularies that constitute it. Some vocabularies are typical of the dialect while others are normal English words, but with different meanings in the Aboriginal context. Still, there are other terms and phrases that a Standard English speaker cannot comprehend at all.
For example, Priman (2004) notes that Aboriginal English uses terms such as Gurri, Koori, Kurri, and Murri to denote a black person. Additionally, a white person is denoted by the terms Dugai and Migaloo. These are examples of terms that are unique to Aboriginal English. Standard English speakers cannot understand such terms unless they are taught. It is also important to point out that the across the different regions of Australia, these terms vary.
Elsewhere, examples of English words that bear different meanings in Aboriginal English include the following. The term mother can be used to refer to one’s blood mother or a maternal aunt. This use of the word is consistent with the manner in which some of the native African languages use the term mother in vernacular. Another example involves the use of the word camp. While Standard English uses the term to refer to mean something else, in Aboriginal English, it has the same meaning as home.
Therefore, although Standard English speakers may understand the term camp, its meaning in an Aboriginal English user’s speech may elude them. Additionally, the term deadly is used in Aboriginal English to refer to something great or simply the best. Apparently, in this sense, one may come across familiar English words in Aboriginal English, but may not understand the meaning and context of their use.
Another area of interest in Aboriginal English that makes it unique is the manner in which pronunciation of terms is done. The sounds produced by Aboriginal English speakers are consistent with their native languages. Therefore, when they pronounce some terms, the sounds vary from how they are supposed to come out because in some cases their native languages lack the standard sounds. For example, some Aboriginal languages do not have the sound ‘h.’ Consequently, any word that requires a distinct production of ‘h’ sound is pronounced minus the sound. In this respect, if such people are asked to pronounce the term ‘house,’ they will pronounce it as ‘ouse.’
In another example, some Aboriginal languages compel their speakers to pronounce the letter ‘p’ as ‘b’ and letter ‘v’ as ‘f.’ The effect of this distortions becomes problematic when an Aboriginal speaker attempts to use Standard English or when they use some English terms that have these sounds and letters in their Aboriginal English.
Another area of interest insofar as the differences in Aboriginal English and Standard English are concerned is grammar. There is a notable difference between the two in terms of grammar. Harkins (1994) notes that in Aboriginal English, grammar, according to Standard English, is distorted to give the desired meaning. For example, a sentence such as, “We was taken away while we were a little bit young,” is the Aboriginal version of the sentence “We were taken away while were quite young.” Notably, ‘was’ replaces ‘were’ in Aboriginal English, and ‘a little bit young’ is used to refer to ‘quite young.’ Priman (2004, p. 14) adds that the tag ‘eh’ is quite common in Aboriginal English.
For instance, while using Aboriginal English, one would say, ‘They bite, eh?’ instead of saying, ‘They bite, don’t they?’ Apparently, there is a notable difference in the application of grammar between the two languages. Although one may want to argue that Aboriginal English has no grammar, what makes it a language that can only be spoken and understood by some people and not others is that it has its rules that govern its use and those are what constitute grammar.
Malcolm (1994) for his part argues that Aboriginal English is recognisable as English, but it has its elements of uniqueness. He points out that it is subtle, complex, and difficult to describe adequately (1994, p. 291). This description inspired by the differences he points out as follows. First, in phonological terms, Aboriginal English uses boundaries at different places if compared to Standard English. It uses a smaller number of phonemes and ignores some differences between voiced and unvoiced consonants, fricatives and affricates as well as between fricatives and plosives.
This approach to some of the rules of grammar gives the language an air of permissiveness. In this perspective, it begins to paint a picture of the natives desire to depart from the stringent rules that govern Standard English. In light of this aspect, one may begin to develop an idea of why the language emerged and developed to its present state.
Aboriginal English Today
This dialect of English, like any other language across the world, is a vibrant and dynamic linguistic system that adapts to the ebb and flow of the numerous stylistic and situational requirements of its speakers. Aboriginal English is not one static dialect that is spoken by indigenous Australians. It is rather, a collection different forms of personalised English that serves as a basis for intergroup communication.
As such, it has to move with the different transitions that occur in these groups as they move from their traditional orientation to a modern society. This transition has been gradual and has brought forth the use of terms such as ‘heavy’ and ‘light’ to refer to the pragmatics that are associated with Aboriginal English. Terminologies that have a closer relationship with the languages of the Aboriginal people are considered heavy while those that have been influenced by modern developments such as popular culture are considered light. Apparently, the language is changing from its original form to a modern version that incorporates recent developments in the Australian society. In fact, the language is also making inroads into contemporary mainstream Australian English.
Conclusion
Apparently, language is an important aspect of communication. The emergence of languages such as Aboriginal English undoubtedly attests to this fact. Although the language not officially recognised in Australia as one of the dialects of English, it serves an important function of facilitating communication across the vast Australian region. Further, since the indigenous Australians personalised the English language to develop this dialect, they use it as a vehicle via which they continue to propagate the aboriginal culture. As such, the dialect serves an additional function besides communication. In short, Aboriginal is important to Australians and needs to be persevered and encouraged.
List of References
Blair, D and Collins, P 2001, English in Australia, 1st edn, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Harkins, J 1994, Bridging two worlds, 1st edn, University of Queensland Press, Queensland.
Malcolm, I 1995, Language and communication enhancement for two-way education, 1st edn, Edith Cowan University, Perth.
Malcom, I 1994, ‘Discourse and discourse strategies Australian Aboriginal English’, World Englishes, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 289-309.
Medina, J 2005, Language: Key concepts in philosophy, Continuum International Publishing, London.
Priman, B 2004, ‘Aboriginal English – An aboriginal perspective’, Newsletter of the Australian Council for Adult Literacy, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 13-16.
Rayudu, C.S 2010, Communication, Global Media, Mumbai.
van Gelderen, E 2006, History of the English Language, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam.