Introdaction
For two and half centuries, that is, between the middle of the fifteenth and seventeenth century, European explorers traversed the globe to most regions unknown before. This is known as the age of reconnaissance. European explorers discovered many regions of the world and sailed to all of them; discovering, trading, and eventually settling in them. The European explorers and merchants explored and discovered many parts on the west coast of Africa and the Indian Ocean putting in motion a number of events and consequences. Then interest shifted to the Atlantic and the South Sea and the new routes to the East and finally, they started occupying and colonizing the territories they had discovered bringing with it a set of new consequences according to Parry (1981, 131-145, 146-162, and 303-319).
What was the exploration of the West African coast and Indian Coast preliminary of?
The exploration of the West African coast and Indian Coast was a rehearsal of the exploration and opening of the Indian trade, which happened much later after Prince Henry died.
What impact did Prince Henry’s death have on exploration?
Prince Henry was the crown prince of Portugal and together with his brother Pedro; they sponsored and gave direction to the exploration of the West African coast. After his death in 1460, just when the coast had become more dangerous and difficult, Henry’s African rights reverted to a crown that did not want to incur the cost of the exploration. Further, the prince had left a huge debt and this discouraged the crown more. Alfonso V who took over was not interested in exploring the Guinea coast rather in the control of Morocco. This slowed down the exploration (parry 1981, 133).
What is the Treaty of Alcaçovas? What were the terms of the agreement?
The Treaty of Alcaçovas is an agreement signed in 1479 between the Portuguese and the Castile Spanish after the defeat of Castile by the Portuguese at the West African coast except in the Canaries and at home. The concessions of the treaty were Castile retain the Canary islands only and abandon trade with Mina, Portugal was granted the monopoly of trade, fishing, and navigation of the West African coast and claim of the other three island groups (Madeira, Azores and cape Verde). Portugal also had to safely escort the Castile ships in African waters home and abandon any claim of the Canary Islands (Parry 1981, 137).
Who is Bartolomeu Dias? Why is he significant?
Bartolomeu Dias was a capable sailor appointed by King John II in 1487 to take over from Diogo Cao who explored 1450 miles of tropical coast against the Benguela and the south-east trades from 1483 to 1487. Dias set sail for the West Coast of Africa and was able to reach the Southernmost point of Africa which is Cape Agulhas a dangerous place. He discovered how to get there under sail thereby discovering a route to India through the Indian Ocean, which was very important to the King and India trade.
How did Columbus come to the conclusion that he could reach Asia from Europe?
Columbus was a son of a little-known weaver from Genoa who had spent many years in Portuguese ships in the sea. He was a geographical theorist with some knowledge of hydrography and navigation. He proposed to the King that one could reach Asia from Europe. He argued this using his theories, their origins, and practical proposals. He argued that since it was agreed that the earth is round with no indication that there is a continent between Europe and Asia it was possible to sail west to Asia from Europe. His proposal in 1484 for a voyage west to Asia from Europe at royal expense was heard by King John II’s committee of astronomers but was rejected. He took his proposal to Spain then.
Why Dias’ voyage wasn’t immediately followed up with another voyage around Africa?
After Dias’s discovery voyage of a route to India king John II did not send any voyages. No voyage, at least recorded, went around Africa to prove what Dias had discovered for another ten years. This could be because of several reasons. First, King John Ii was collecting information on the geography of the Indian coast and the political and commercial environment there. This is the reason he sent Pedro da Covilha to verify reports by sailors of strong empires in the African interior and the possibility of friendly relations and to verify reports of the legendry Prester John and Christian Ethiopia. The king was also distracted by political and succession problems at home and then he died in 1495 further delaying plans for another voyage. Finally, the voyage round the coast of Africa was treacherous and therefore discouraging to merchants and therefore the years could have been used to gather information on the wind system of the Central and southern Atlantic (Parry 1981, 142).
On Columbus’ return, why did the Spanish monarch turn to the pope for help? What did the pope do? What was the immediate objective of Columbus’ second voyage?
After a connection by an officer of the state in Spain by the name Santangel to the Spanish monarchs, financial resources were raised for Columbus’s voyage west to Asia from Europe. An agreement was then signed between the fundraisers and Columbus and he set sail from Palos in August of 1492.
On his way, his flagship was destroyed and he left some of his crew to occupy and seek gold mines in the discovered coast of Hispaniola. On his return to Europe after stopping in the Portuguese-occupied coasts of Azores and Tagus, the Spanish sponsors declared his voyage successful. They ordered him to prepare for a second voyage.
Meanwhile, King John II was laying claim to Columbus’s discoveries of the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola on grounds that they were close to the Azores. In order to go ahead with proving Columbus discoveries and produce return for investment, they prepared for another voyage which could have been delayed by the Portuguese intervention. They sort papal intervention in order to delay Portuguese objections. The pope, Alexander VI, immediately sent four bulls which strengthened his support of the Spanish demands as given by Ferdinard and Isabella on Columbus advice. The first two bulls were to give the Spanish sovereignty to all lands discovered or to be discovered on the areas Columbus explored. Another bull, Inter Caetera, followed from the pope demarcating Spanish exploration area and made an imaginary boundary from north to south west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands. The fourth bull, Dudum siquidem, extended the previous bull provisions to include all islands and mainland established or to be established on the west and south direction, whether meriodional, occidental and oriental and India (Parry 1981, 164).
What was Portugal’s response? What did John II achieve?
John II was not so much interested in going to war after the pope’s issuances of inhabited islands to Spain but he last provisions, Dudum siquidem, alarmed him due to its mention of India. He therefore resulted to diplomatic and geographical reasoning. The pope did not bulge and therefore John II resulted to direct negotiations with Ferdinard and Issabella. He accepted to negotiate on the basis of the third bull, Inter Caetera and requested boundaries are moved 270 leagues further west which both parties accepted. This led to signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which was an achievement for Portugal since the only true direct routes to India and most of the south Atlantic where later Brazil was discovered was confirmed as Portuguese area.
Columbus believed he landed in Asia? Did other Europeans also believe this?
Columbus believed that Asia was as far as it was believed and even on his last voyage did not land there. Other Europeans did not believe he landed in Asia or came close to it. Peter Martyr wrote that the new land believed to be Asia was so far and devoid of civilization or religion.
Who is John Cabot? Why is he significant?
There was talk in the west-country islands of Ireland around the time of Columbus exploration of the Atlantic that ship left Bristol regularly to unknown destinations in the West Atlantic. After Columbus discovery King Henry VII of England gave license to John Cobot in 1496 to explore the western north Atlantic. John Cobot was an Italian who had settled in Bristol. He proposed to explore the routes he may have heard from seam in Bristol which had made sightings of a mainland coast which he believed were the north easterly extension of Asia until he reached mainland China. On his second voyage in 1497 he made sight of Newfoundland and in his subsequent voyage discovered Nova Scotia and New England.
Who is Amerigo Vespucci? Why is he significant?
Amerigo Vespucci was a Florence native explorer who had vast knowledge in geography and navigation. He made two voyages of the greater Atlantic coast of South America. One voyage in Spanish ships in 1499 of the Atlantic coast from a point west of Cape Sao Roque to Maracaibo lagoon. He made another one in 1501 in Portuguese ships. He is significant in the history exploration due to his discoveries, geographical knowledge and judgment.
Who is Ferdinand Magellan? Why is he significant? What was his goal? What country did he sail for?
Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who had spent some year in the east and was keen to find a route to Asia through the routes established by Vespucci’s third voyage through the extreme of South America. He realized that under the praecelsae devotionis bull his discoveries would only benefit the Spaniards and so he sought their sponsorship and sailed in September of 1519. He sailed and landed in the Philippines at Sebu a place that was yet to be discovered.
What is the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)?
This was a treaty signed between the Spanish crown prince Charles V and the Portuguese in 1529 when the king realized that his country was becoming insolvent as a result of war with France. Charles V signed his entire claim to the Molluccas to Portugal for 350,000 ducats. Another imaginary boundary was drawn seventeen degrees east of the islands as a provision of the treaty. Further the Spanish handed over to the Portuguese the garrison at Tidore islands and in exchange the Spaniards were taken back home in Portuguese ships (Parry 1981, 157).
What was the result of the discovery of Magellan’s strait?
As a result of discovery of the Magellan’s strait, Magellan was able to reach the Philippines and when he died his remaining seaman Delocano was able to reach Tedore, establish a friendly relations with the sultan and finally was able to sail back home through the Indian ocean and west African coast and become the first man to sail round the world. As a result of this open warfare with Portugal resulted leading to the signing of the Treaty of Zaragoza. Voyages were undertaken to follow the same route were unsuccessful and it was not used as it was deemed too dangerous.
New routes to the East
How were the Portuguese able to dominate the sea trade routes from Europe to India for a hundred years?
The Portuguese were able to dominate sea trade routes from Europe to India by use of naval force and naval power in the sixteenth century, which was superior to the Arabs operating in the route. They built fortified bases in the eastern Indian Ocean coasts and stocked ship-borne artillery therefore was able to protect their trade against attacks. They also had no serious competitors in this route.
How were the Dutch able to challenge the Portuguese?
The Dutch were able o challenge the Portuguese in the eastern trade by combining private commercial expeditions of eastern traders into one great national interest therefore creating a monopoly and strengthening the efforts of Dutch commanders to dealing with local rulers and fight Portuguese. They had also gathered information on Portuguese shipping routes in the east.
Who is Jan Pieterszoon Coen? Why is he significant?
Jan Pieterszoon Coen was a Dutch seaman in the eastern trade route who established a fortified base at Batavia. This base provided the Dutch with a permanent strategic initiative to monopolize the trade.
Why did the Dutch set up a colony at the Cape in South Africa (1652)?
The Dutch East India Company set up a colony in Cape South Africa so as it can act as a re-supply point on their eastern trade as they went back and forth. Since the local community had only cattle, which was not enough to re-supply. The company established a community that established farms for the same purpose.
The rights of Conquerors and conquered
What problem did the European empires overseas create?
Overseas European empires created a problem of political theory and administration. Literature on the legal rights of free people circulated freely and was widely read and people began to question the actions of their governments.
In the sixteenth century, which country led the rest of Europe in law, government, and jurisprudence?
In the sixteenth century Spain led other European countries in the practice of law government and jurisprudence. Spanish learners developed a theory of constitutional state, which had unrestricted sphere of influence but limited powers regulated by laws and customs of the governed.
On what did the Spanish crown officially base its right to rule the Indies?
The Spanish crown based their right to rule the Indies on the papal bulls of 1493 specifically the Inter Caetera. This had given Spain islands and mainlands from north to south west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands except lands occupied by Christian rulers.
What is the doctrine of universal papal dominion? Was it universally accepted? What was the objection to it?
The doctrine of universal papal dominion was a conception of the world associated with Henry of Susa in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. It conceived the world as a homogenous Christendom with ruler boundaries. This means these kingdoms retained the land and possessions only by the favor of the church and refusal to recognize the authority of the pope could lead to punishment. This doctrine was not universally accepted on the basis that it was unrealistic and theologically impractical.
Who is Francisco de Vitoria? What was his argument concerning war and conquest?
Francisco de Vitoria was a Dominican jurist and academic whose major interest was the rights and wrongs of war and conquest in the Indies by Spain. He rejected completely the claim of the pope or emperor to exercise power over other princes whether Christian or infidel. He argued that there is natural law of connection between independent nations based on a system of mutual rights and duties and that war and conquest were governed by a rule of law.
Bartolome de las Casas? What did he argue in regards to the rights of the Indians? What authority did he argue that the Pope had? What does he say are the duties of kings?
Bartolome de las Casas was a Spanish Dominican writer who had settled in the new land and witnessed the brutal treatment of Indians in these Spanish colonies. He was a big crusader for the rights of natives as well as a priest. In regard to the rights of Indians he argued that upon accepting the obedience of Spain became equal with people of Spain and natural subjects of the Crown therefore should enjoy liberty and justice entitled to the Spanish subjects as in the laws of Castile.
Who is Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda? What was his argument about just war and conquest? How was his work received?
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was a learned Spaniard and a theoretical defender of Francisco de Vitoria theory of natural law but in a different perspective. Sepúlveda’s theory of natural law justified Spanish rights of conquest and colonization of the new world as religious duty and charity to the ignorant neighbors as a superior people. His reasoning was well received by the colonizers and settlers in the new world but, his learned colleagues in other places saw him as an apologist for slavery.
What happened at Valladolid (1550)? Did it have any impact of the Spanish Crown?
In Valladolid in 1550 a meeting of a panel of distinguished jurists was held where las Casas and SepĂşlveda were invited to present their views and debate face to face on their stands on conquest and war. The meeting did not conclude but, the later lost as his work was never published until two hundred years later (Parry 1981, 325).
Who do agree with las Casas or SepĂşlveda? Why?
I agree with las Casas because his argument that if the Spaniards wanted to colonize and change the Indians then they became the subjects of the Spanish crown and should therefore have been entitled to the benefits of the system imposed upon them.
Reference
Parry, Hansen. J. 1981. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement 1450 to 1650. Los Angles: University of California Press Ltd. 2010. Web.