Introduction
Since the time of its publication Dantes poem The Divine Comedy has always been a subject of in-depth analysis by theologians, philosophers, and literary critics. Over the centuries they have tried to present their definitive interpretation of this landmark work. Narratology or the study of narrative gives a unique opportunity to enlarge our understanding of this book. This paper aims to discuss the first part of the poem, the Inferno in connection with the theory of open text, which was worked out of by Robert Barthes and Umberto Eco. According to the views of these scholars, a text is able to generate new meanings irrespective of the authors initial intentions (Selden & Widdowson 132). This approach emphasizes the importance of the readers, who can develop their own vision of the book. The most crucial thing is that their understanding may not coincide with that one of the writer (Barthes, unpaged). This perspective enables to see the semantic transformation, undergone by a work of art in the course of history. In other words, this method shows how understanding could have changed over a certain period of time. There is a widely held opinion among many scholars that the analysis of the Inferno should be based on the studies of cultural and religious tradition of medieval Italian society. However, the Devine Comedy has long passed the test of time. This is the most convincing proof that this poem cannot be viewed only in the context of the Middle Ages. Although at this point, it is too early to jump to any conclusions, we can say that the unique quality of the Inferno lies in the following: its narrative can be analyzed at different levels: cultural, allegorical and symbolical. This is one of the reasons, which explains the longevity of the poem. The most distinctive feature of the narrative mode, employed by Dante is that it aims to persuade the reader in the rectitude of the authors opinion, yet contemporary evaluation of characters behavior may not coincide with that one of Dante. Yet, this is just a hypothesis that needs to be substantiated.
The theory of open text
Robert Barthes
At this point, it is of the upmost important for us to make an overview of the theory of open text, developed and promoted by Barthes and Eco. In his essayThe Death of the Author Robert Barthes points out that conventional criticism holds the writer as “the only person in literature” and that the role of the reader is frequently underestimated (Barthes & Howard, unpaged). He says that ordinary culture, “tyrannically centred on the author, his person, his life, his tastes, his passions..” (Barthes & Howard, unpaged) However, a work of art survives mostly due to the fact that the audience is able to find something new in them. Robert Barthes overarching thesis is that the meaning of a literary work is heavily dependent on those people, who read it. So, the creation of art is a two-sided process which includes the author (writer, poet, artist etc) and the recipient (reader; listener or viewer). At first, this form of interpretation was not very widespread yet with time passing it was adopted by many critics.
Umberto Eco
Later, Barthes ideas were elaborated by Umberto Eco, who compared literary work to a musical composition: the writer is the composer, while reader is the performer (Eco & Cangogni, 2). The impression, produced by the book depends on both of them. Most importantly, Umberto Eco subdivides texts into two types: closed and opened ones. The first category allows only for one interpretation, namely that one which was expected by the writer (Eco & Cangogni, 13). In contrast, open texts give room for multiple images and associations, unforeseen by the writer. Overall, it is quite possible to argue that the Inferno combines the characteristics of both these types. In the next section we need to describe these characteristics. This analysis can throw a new light on this part of the Divine Comedy. At this stage, we need explain another between closed and open texts. In the first case, the narrative is intended to lead the audience throughout the story; the writer expects the readers to share his or her views. While in open texts, the author never attempts to impose his or her ideas on the recipient. The Divine Comedy as well as the Inferno as a constituent part of this poem has the attributes of both types.
The Narrative of the Inferno
Characteristics of the closed text
The narrative of the Inferno contains numerous references to Dantes life, his country, culture, and the then community. At the very beginning, he emphasizes autobiographical nature of the poem by employing first-person narrative mode. In particular, he says,
“Midway upon the journey of life
I found myself within a forest dark
For the right road was lost” (Dante, 17)
In fact, it is frequently hypothesized that the Divine Comedy is the spiritual confession of the author and the Inferno reflects his emotional and psychological state at a certain moment of history. It has to be admitted that to some extent every book is autobiographical. Nonetheless, the story-teller represents not only one person, but mankind in general. His character is created in order to describe spiritual evolvement of a human being, who commits sins, expiates them and eventually rises to the heights of heaven. It seems that Dante gives preference to the first-person narration in order to make the story more appealing. This is one of the best ways to gain support of the reader. This feature demonstrates that the Inferno can be rightly viewed as the closed text.
There is a great number of autobiographical elements in this part of the Comedy; for instance, the story-teller is guided by Virgil, who is believed to be the Dantes favorite poet (Reynolds, 108). He recognizes his new companion and follows Virgil obediently throughout hell and purgatory. This element of the narrative reflects artistic preferences of the writer. Still, autobiographical details are not the only attributes of the closed text. As we have previously said, its primary purpose is to present an evaluation of certain events, actions, behaviors. Most importantly, it is necessary to convince the reader that this assessment is grounded.
It should be borne in mind that the whole complexity of the Inferno can be fully understood only if we take into consideration political situation in Italy of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Many political and religious figures of that period are placed in hell, for instance, Pope Celestine V, Cavalcante de’ Cavalcanti, Brunetto Latini, Vitaliano di Iacopo Vitaliani and many others. In this way Dante strives to express his negative attitude toward them. Apart from that, we should not forget that Dante was banished from his native city of Florence (Reynolds, 159). At the time, Dante was writing the Divine Comedy, he was virtually an outlaw and outcast. Some of those people, doomed to eternal sufferings were guilty of his exile. Very often the author is regarded only a man of letters, yet, he was also a political thinker, who had many enemies (Reynolds, 44). Dante could not express his views about them freely, so he tried to do it in a disguised manner.
Among them, we may mention Count Ugolino, who is in the ninth circle of hell (Dante, 173). He is immersed in ice for eternity for treachery. Political treason is viewed as the deadliest sin by Dante arguably because he had encountered and suffered from treason. In addition to that, the Inferno indicates at a profound religiousness of the author, and his deep devotion to the tenets of Christianity. In part, the Divine Comedy illustrates the worldview of that period. This is one of the reasons why Dante locates Judas Iscariot in close proximity to the Satan (Dante, 175). We should set stress on the idea that the positioning of sinners in the hell is not accidental. It is significantly shaped by the peculiarities of the then Italy and medieval Europe in general.
Yet, the most striking detail which proves that the Inferno can be considered as the closed text is the hierarchy of sins, presented by Dante. It includes lust, gluttony, avarice, sloth, wroth, heresy, blasphemy, treachery and many others. Each of them corresponds to a certain circle of hell. This hierarchy is derived from biblical and ancient Greek traditions (Reynolds, 87). In this way Dante tries to evaluate the conduct of his contemporaries and probably warn them against the dangers of sinful life. Overall, moralization is an inseparable element of the closed texts, and Dante uses it in the poem (Bal, 18). It appears that the impact of this poem on the audience has drastically changed over seven centuries. Some of the authors beliefs are no longer taken as unquestionable truths, for example, his views about atheism may not be accepted by modern society.
Overall, these examples suggest that this narrative of the Inferno should not be discussed only in connection with the history of that period, the problems of the then society, Dante vicissitudes, and so forth. It has to be admitted that theological, social, and political aspects occupy leading positions in this work. At first glance, one can say that this part of the Devine Comedy is a closed text which gives to room for any alternative interpretation. Nonetheless, we need to emphasize an idea that there can be different views on this issue. The point is that modern readers can open new sides of this poem and the criticism of this work should not be dominated by the personality of the writer and his intentions.
Attributes of the open text
A great number of symbols, employed in the Inferno can acquire new shades of meaning. In the forest, the narrator encounters three beasts: lion, the panther and she-wolf (Dante, 18). These animals represent three sins: pride, lust and avarice. Traditionally, they are discussed in connection with individuality; however, contemporary readers can interpret them as forces that pose a threat to the well-being of society and humankind. It has to be admitted that their semantics does not change but these symbols grow even more ominous, if they are looked from contemporary perspective. This case demonstrates that the change of social norms can either intensify or diminish the effect produced by a work of art.
Nonetheless, the most peculiar feature of Dantes narrative is that he gives a brief but very accurate account of each sinners life. Although, the poem is primarily his own journey, the readers are provided with deep insights into the inner world of each character. We may remember the story of Francesco and Paolo, who are allegedly punished for their lust (Dante, 37). As a matter of fact, Francesco is an adulteress, who was killed by her jealous husband. We cannot state for a fact whether the narrator feels empathy for her or not. But the representatives of feminist criticism may argue that in this way Dante intended to describe the status of women in the medieval society. The themes, explored by Dante in the Inferno, vary according to the standards, norms and stereotypes, rooted in the community at a specific moment.
The most peculiar feature of Dantes narrative is that some themes become more prominent. The third circle of hell is inhabited by people who attached primary importance to money and regarded it as the most vital components of their lives. The story-teller characterizes them in this way, “in whom is avarice wont to work its worst” (Dante, 44). Unfortunately, in the modern world attitudes towards this behavior has changed and it is not longer regarded as something morally impermissible. Contemporary reading of the Inferno would differ significantly that one of the Middle Ages, the society has passed through many stages of evolution and modern perception of the sins, described in the Inferno have altered. Mostly, future generation of readers have a different understanding of this poem.
Modern critics are extremely interested in the psychological aspects of the narrative mode. The thing is that Dante has assumed a unique position in the Divine Comedy both the main character, the guide of the audience and a distant observer who has to pass through hell on his path to heaven. The story-teller is the person with his biases and prejudices which can affect his evaluation of people, facts and ideas. Yet, at the same time, as an author, Dante strives to remain impartial, objective and compassionate. It must be taken into consideration that Dante was an adept of Catholic religious and moral doctrine, so he condemned everything that could deviate from it.
The point is that very often it is quite difficult to draw a distinct line between Dante, the story-teller and Dante, the author. One of the most crucial questions, which we need to discuss is whether modern audience would agree with the writers perception of good and evil or not. For instance, we can refer to Dantes opinion about Brutus and Cassius, who are doomed to ever-lasting damnation in the ninth circle due to the fact that they betrayed and killed Julius Caesar. From present-day standpoint, this deed may not be viewed as something so outrageous or abhorring mostly because contemporary historians see Caesar as a cruel tyrant. Moreover, heresy and atheism which occupy a notorious place in the hierarchy of sins at least from Dantes standpoint are no longer so appalling.
Therefore, we can come to the conclusion that Dantes Inferno can be classified as an open text because some of the ideas, expressed by the writer have become more self-evident in the modern community. Additionally, in-depth analysis of various, characters portrayed in this part of Divine Comedy, can reveal new themes in this novel, such as the position of women, gender roles, or commercialism. Probably, this is one of the reasons why the Divine Comedy has enjoyed immense popularity for more than seven centuries. The most curious detail of the Inferno is that moral assessment made by Dante may be inconsistent with modern ethics.
Discussion
The major benefit of the theory of open text is that it enables us to see how the same text can acquire new shades of meanings. At this point of discussion we can say that Dantes narrative is closely intertwined with ethical evaluation of characters actions and behaviors. To a certain degree, the Inferno is a closed text, as it heavily relies on the use of cultural, historic, and religious tradition of the Middle Ages. Moreover, it can be observed that Dante tries to impose his worldview on the audience; it is done by developing a hierarchy of sins. He uses the method in order to guide the reader and affect his or her worldview. Nonetheless, present-day critics may disagree with Dante, especially if we are speaking about his interpretation of sins. The views of Robert Barthes and Umberto Eco are extremely beneficial for literary criticism: they provide a new analytical framework which consists of two parts: the intended effect on the audience and the achieved effect. Naturally, one cannot deny the fact that the Divine Comedy is one of the greatest masterpieces in the world literature, but its influence on the reader can either weaken or intensify in with time passing.
Conclusion
Therefore, having discussed Dantes Inferno in connection with the theory of open text, advocated by Robert Barthes and Umberto Eco, we can come the conclusion that the interpretation of this poem can be affected by the norms, values, and ethical standards, established in any given society. On the one hand, this work is closely associated with the Middle Ages and the audience is rather unlikely to comprehend the writers message without thorough knowledge of that period, its theological, philosophical and moral principles. Nonetheless it also transcends through time, Dantes ideas about the human soul remain relevant in spite of any social, political, or philosophical changes. Once this poem signified the beginning of the Italian and Western-European Renaissance and in the centuries to come its popularity has never diminished. The uniqueness of this masterpiece lies in its ability to open new dimensions for the reader. Besides, under some circumstances, readers can interpret the Inferno in the ways, which were not foreseen by Dante. Overall, it would not be an exaggeration to say that reading of the Divine Comedy and especially its first part is always an exceptional experience and its outcomes are dependent on the reader, who can breathe new life into already-existing text. This feature is an indispensible attribute of literary work.
Works Cited
Alighieri Dante & Richardson Marvin (trans). Inferno. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009.
Bal Mike. Narratology: introduction to the theory of narrative. University of Toronto Press, 1997.
Barthes Roland. & Howard Richard (trans). The death of the author. 1977. Web.
Reynolds Barbary. Dante: the poet, the political thinker, the man. . I.B.Tauris, 2006.
Richter. The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends. Bedford/St. Martin’s; Second Edition edition, 1997.
Selden Raman & Widdowson Peter. A reader’s guide to contemporary literary theory. University Press of Kentucky, 1993.
Eco Umberto & Cangogni Anna (translator). The open work. Harvard University Press, 1989.