Cultural identities such as femininity and masculinity are concepts that cannot be limited to a biological definition, which is measured by physical attributes only. Even the addition of psychological traits does not sufficiently define masculinity; cultural issues come into play and the social context of the day. (Beynon, 2000, p.23). Both identities cannot free themselves of culture and areas result expressed differently at different times in different circumstances. (Beynon, 2002, p.24). Cultural identities are socially constructed.
Beynon reports that while Western population culture (films records television, cyber games, and video) continue to celebrate the ‘he-man’ by the images seen in sport, war films, and comic books, there has been dysfunction in the portrayal and as a result, many men have developed “hybrid masculinity that is displayed differently depending on the time and circumstances. The public culture has therefore led to the giving up of the stereotypes based on biological differences.
Initially, masculinity was characterized by a representation of manliness as competitiveness aggression, and violence due to raging hormones. There has been a change and most young men nowadays have acquired a lifestyle that was not so ‘male’ before. This is illustrated by the increasing number of men agreeing to help around in the household, performing duties that were left for the women. Generally, the roles and values of both men and women have become very similar. The emergence of gay men is also a trend that was not considered male before.
The development of masculinity studies is viewed by many as a reaction to feminism that has exposed past cruelties of masculinity. The vehicle for this expose has been the media through written press newspapers, magazines, and books and in latter days through the electronic media. Kahn in his review of Steve Craig’s, Men, Masculinity and the Media points out that men’s studies have a different focus from women’s studies; while men’s studies focus on the stereotypes of masculinity most women studies focus on empowering women and usually lead to social action. Kahn reiterates that in the women’s studies he has taught the student to engage in activities that enhance the status or image of women for example organizing protests (Kahn, 1994).
The media portrays masculinity with such images as ‘heavy metal/rock bands, beer commercials, sports, Hollywood war films and comic books’ (Craig, 1992) These are regular stereotypes but presently the media has also been portraying images that deviate from this sexist bias. This has led to a new culture among men, which has not spread to all of them but is rampant among young men.
Local culture also influences masculinity. In most rural areas the perception of manliness has not changed as much as in the urban center since most subcultures in local areas tend to resist the portrayal of masculinity seen in today’s mainstream media. (Namaste, 1994).
Historically culture seems to play a significant role in determining the development of gender roles. This is mainly through such things as literature, dress, and songs. The epics of Homer, tales of King Arthur and the works of Confucius, and even biographical studies of Muhammad all reflect an influence of local culture on negotiation and formation of identities.
Derne in his book asserts that the reason men in India are attracted to Hindi films is because of their depiction of ‘modern lifestyles’ (Derne, 2002, p3, p.165-170). Most scholars emphasize hierarchy and group guidance as values held in high esteem in India while Derne reports that it is love and individualism are celebrated values in that country. (Derne, 2002.). Love to most people is not a characteristic of masculinity. This is a further illustration of the influence of media.
The culture in the media industry is filled with various sexist stereotypes where women are concerned. This makes it difficult to change the images in mainstream media of women. Langton in her book Womenvision points out the difficulty in changing these attitudes demonstrated by the fact that even after two waves of feminism they still exist and women in cinema continually face them daily (Langton, 2003, p. 45-50). As a result, women prefer experimental and short film forms to mainstream cinema. The shorter films are more intimate as the filmmaker can tell about individual life experiences and thus influence the content of the material in the media, challenging the ideology of masculinity in the process. This shows that the media though it has played a negative role in the portrayal of women can also play a positive role in changing this image and serve as a tool for campaigns to restore the status of women.
Barker argues that television is a resource whose use is on the increase as a tool for making cultural identity. Cultural identity is unfixed; society constructs it depending on the situation (Barker, 2000). An example of the increasing use of television as a tool of influence in cultural identities is the trend for girls in urban areas to desire to acquire the slim model figures shown on television as the ideal female form. This desire is rampant in all countries from the western countries to Asian and African countries whose local cultures generally prefer bigger move voluptuous women. This can be explained by the effect of globalization, which has enabled different countries to be able to view the same material on television.
Masculinity unlike maleness has evolved historically culturally and socially. Most of the cultural responses have been due to feminism. Generally, the media has sponsored the assertion of the tough male through popular drama (Leach, 1994)
The gender identity of being masculine is learned through participating in society and the institutions of society. Masculine styles vary cross-culturally for example the twentieth century represented masculinity with images of industrialization while the pre-existing perception before was that of a man in family-based income production. (Leach, 1994). Leach argues that this demonstrates the ideological nature of masculinity; he states that the ideological strength of gender identity lies in the fact that masculinity is easily confused with maleness. This serves various interests including gender division of labor, which limits women to a more domestic role and males to a public role. It also serves men’s interests of maintaining women as economic subordinates and sustenance of sexual oppression. (Leach 1994)
Feminism has contributed to the focus on masculinity; masculine studies are therefore a very recent area of study. Feminism has influenced the gender order and as a result, there is a move towards more neutral gender identity. Feminism has led to such things as an increase in the number of women in the workplace and education. Many young women are involved in activities culturally considered as masculine, these include ‘risk-taking behavior such as a desire for sport adventure foreign travel and increase in sexuality’ (Nurse, 2002). Its however has led to the argument that men are victims of the female movement, that gained economic power make have been marginalized (Nurse, 2002). Men’s privileges are indeed reducing in contemporary times and the role of the man as the breadwinner is fast on the decline but to view men as victims is rather extreme since most positions of leadership and public offices are still occupied by men. When a woman holds these positions it is still considered a variation from the normal. The view of men as victims of the feminist movement does not hold since feminism just exposed the distorted view of masculinity. It did not lead to men being fired from jobs so that women can replace them, neither did it punish men for injustices done to women in years past.
It is however undeniable that masculinity is going through various changes as a result of the challenges of feminism to patriarchy ideology and also greater competition posed by the entry of women into education and the job market and economic empowerment. The emergence of a consumer culture that shifts the power of ‘gaze’ to women is one such example. Before men had this power and still do but presently the media through magazines has subjected men to ‘the look’ of both women and men. Magazines showing male models have caused men to be influenced by the images of the ideal male figure. (Nurse, 2007, p.1). The development of the metrosexual male is a result of a culture that is sexualizing and feminizing men.
Local cultures seem to resist these effects but the media has a far-reaching effect in this era of globalization. This has resulted in the transportation of Western culture to urban centers of developing countries. With the migration of people from rural areas into the urban center, the culture is then spread even to rural areas.
Nurse (2002, p. 1) says that in contemporary times with a decline in male-male friendships, men have become more dependent on women for emotional validation. Masculinity portrays men as competitive and aggressive and women are used as a symbol of success in male competition (Nurse, 2002, p. 1). Women also act as mediators since men cannot relate to each other without competition, and In effect, male-female relationships provide means for reducing stress generated from relating to other males. (Nurse, 2002).
It should be noted that masculinity is being exploited by capitalism. All the men who buy toiletries advertised in magazines demonstrate this, those who go to gyms to get ‘rock-hard abs’ and also purchase exercise machines in pursuit of the ideal male figure are a case in point.
Feminism and masculinity are tied and while it may not be necessary to separate them, we should be careful not to find ourselves in a situation where males flee the company of females when they view themselves as victims of feminism and ‘women become masculinized (Nurse, 2002).
References List
Barker, C. 2000, ‘Sexed Subject and Gendered Representation’, in Television Globalization, and Cultural Identities, Buckingham; Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp.86-107.
Beynon, J. 2002, ‘What is Masculinity?’ in Masculinities and Culture. Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp.1-25.
Craig, S. 1992, Men, Masculinity and the Media, Sage Publications, pp.100-105.
Derne’ S. 2002, ‘The Sociology of Audience Reception’, in Movies, Masculinity and Modernity: An Ethnography of Men’s Film going in India. Westport CT; London: Greenwood Press.pp.165-178.
Langton, M. 2003, “Grounded and Gendered. Aboriginal Women in Australian Cinema’.’ in French, L.ed.Womenvision. Women and the Moving Image in Australia. Melbourne: Damned Publishing, pp.43-56.
Kahn, AS. 1994, Book Review-Man, Masculinity and the media. Web.
Namaste K 1994, Men, Masculinity and the Media, Canadian journal of communication 19(2). Web.
Leach, M. 1994, Politic of Masculinity; An Overview of Contemporary Theory Social Alternatives; 12(4) January/p.36-37.
Nurse, K. 2002, where are we going? Feminism and Masculinity. CAFRA News. Web.