Abstract
China and Spain adopt different strategies to federate basketball, and the results are evident in each country’s achievements and progress in the sport. The strategies are deeply rooted in the different athlete-coach relationships that each country cultivates. While research evidence suggests that positive athlete-coach relationships enhance the quality and effectiveness of training, a knowledge gap exists regarding how these relationships contribute to the professional and personal accomplishments of athletes and coaches.
To determine the type of athlete-coach relationship in federated basketball in China and Spain, this study employed an investigator triangulation mixed-methods approach. The methodology involves collecting data using both qualitative and quantitative approaches with the help of researchers. The research employed semi-structured interview questions to gather both types of data, a process facilitated by the CART-Q questionnaire.
The results showed that China and Spain have different approaches to athlete-coach relationships, which have affected the outcomes of federated basketball in each country. Spain and China have achieved many notable accomplishments in basketball. Similarly, each country has faced a fair share of tribulations and challenges in the game. This investigation will be crucial for revealing the type of athlete-coach relationship in basketball each country practices and how these different types affect or contribute to success or failure in the sport.
Introduction
Basketball is one of the most popular professional sports worldwide. History shows that James Naismith invented basketball in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891 as a way to keep his students active during the winter (Toole, 2021). The sport has since evolved in terms of rules governing the game, team size, the ball, substitutions, scoring rules, timing, and even the ball itself (Hooptactics, 2023).
Other changes that have occurred since the game’s inception include coaching rules. Coaches were not allowed to offer instructions to players while the game was in progress until 1949, when this regulation was overhauled (Hooptactics, 2023). The significant changes can be attributed to globalization and the internationalization of the game, which have called for more standardized regulations to govern it.
China and Spain are among the developed countries where basketball is played professionally and for leisure. The sport was first introduced in China in the late 1890s and gained significant traction thereafter, as it required minimal resources to play (Zhenyu, 2021). In 1936, the country introduced its first Olympic league, a year after the country recognized basketball as a national sport. Since then, the country has made significant investments in the sport, enabling more youths to participate in the game as a career.
The Chinese utilize the sport as a means of social interaction, fostering friendships and emotional connections. There are multiple teams and leagues that the nation can join in its pursuit of the game. Examples of renowned teams include the Beijing Ducks, Shanghai Sharks, Long Lions, Golden Bulls, and Southern Tigers.
The Chinese Basketball Management Center governs basketball in China by implementing initiatives and recommending changes. Basketball is also very common in Spain, ranking second only to football, although it was played later than in China. Basketball was first played in Spain in 1923 and has since evolved into a popular national sport. The Spanish Basketball Federation is responsible for regulating basketball in the country.
Each country has a different relationship between athletes and their coaches. Athletes and coaches interact on a level beyond the professional, and this relationship can impact both professional and personal progress. The relationship between athletes and their coaches in any sport plays a crucial role in fostering trust, enhancing communication, and cultivating a winning mindset (Sánchez et al., 2012).
Basketball also relies on a strong, positive relationship between athletes and coaches to thrive. Trust and communication are particularly crucial in the game because athletes frequently face criticism from fans (Sánchez et al., 2012). Coaches use such feedback to develop and implement more effective and robust training programs. If communication and trust are compromised, athletes may not receive criticism positively, leading to poor outcomes in sports and at the individual level.
The comparison will also provide in-depth insights regarding the strategies, approaches, and techniques that Spain and China use to advance basketball as a professional sport in their countries. Moreover, the research will help deepen understanding of each team’s successes and failures. This understanding will be crucial in future endeavors for each team, as they can use the achievements to improve coaching and the failures to gain a deeper understanding of the game. Comparing the athlete-coach relationship in the two countries in basketball will also provide insights into how coaches relate to their athletes from the athletes’ perspective. Stakeholders can use the findings to design more effective training programs and enhance the relationships between coaches and athletes.
Methods
The research employed an investigator triangulation mixed-methodology approach to gather the relevant data. A mixed-methods approach combines qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection, enabling a more comprehensive analysis of the information (Mackey & Bryfonski, 2018). Independent investigators were employed to gather the data, thereby reducing the risk of bias.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with individuals employed by the Spanish and Chinese basketball associations. This instrument is beneficial for research because the respondents were placed in comfortable conditions, and the author took all necessary steps to ensure high-quality data collection. The questionnaire was designed to assess basketball players’ perceptions of their relationships with their coaches and the potential influence of these relationships on their performance and professional outcomes.
The Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q was used as the data collection instrument for this study. An instrument is an 11-item tool that measures different constructs of commitment, closeness, and complementarity between the coach and athlete (Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004). The questionnaire analyzes three items under commitment, four under closeness, and four under complementarity. In this context, commitment refers to the degree to which the athlete and coach sustain their relationship, as assessed by factors such as their long-term orientation and the strength of their bond (Mohd Kassim et al., 2020).
Complementarity refers to the extent to which the athlete-coach relationship and behaviors align, characterized by how well the athlete and coach cooperate and reciprocate throughout their relationship (Nicholls & Perry, 2016). Closeness refers to the affective connectedness between the athlete and the coach, characterized by trust, honesty, respect, appreciation, and liking (McGee & DeFreese, 2019). Complementarity refers to the views that the coach and athlete establish together regarding their professional progress (Nicholls & Perry, 2016). The questionnaire measured these constructs using different items, focusing on the athlete’s perception rather than the coach’s.
A sample of 771 participants was recruited from a larger population of Chinese and Spanish players using a non-random sampling technique. 385 respondents were from China, while 386 were from Spain. The chief recruiter sent invitation letters to potential participants after obtaining their contact information from the coaches, until the required number of representatives was secured.
The Spanish respondents completed the CART-Q using the Google Forms platform and submitted their responses through the same platform. Since the Chinese government imposes strict rules on the use of Google within the country, the Chinese respondents utilized the Wenjuanxing platform, which is equivalent to Google Forms. Each participant completed the forms without interference from the researchers, thereby reducing bias during data collection.
Results
A total of 771 participants were assessed with the CART-Q tool to identify the types of athlete-coach relationships in each country. The evaluation questionnaire for coaches/athletes from China and Spain used a 7-point scale with a preset midpoint of 3.5. The participants were evaluated based on how close they felt to their coaches, the coaches’ commitment, their ease, liking, and trusting the coach, prospects in the sport using the same coach, responsiveness and respect for the coach, appreciation of the coaches’ efforts, and friendliness towards the coach. The questionnaire results showed that almost all participants from both countries responded positively to these prompts, though the Spanish-coached participants scored higher than their Chinese counterparts. These findings reveal that Spanish athletes perceived their coaches as being more committed, closer, and more complementary to their careers than Chinese athletes. However, the difference was not statistically significant.
Based on the average values, the scores for the questionnaire items in both countries were above 3.5. These findings imply that most respondents in both countries responded positively regarding commitment, complementarity, and closeness, despite their age differences. Complementarity had the highest score, indicating that more athletes possessed positive attributes in this construct than in closeness and commitment.
Further analysis of the findings, based on age and gender, was conducted. More female than male respondents responded positively to complementarity, while there was no gender difference in responses regarding commitment and closeness. Comparison between the two countries revealed no statistically significant differences, although Chinese respondents had slightly lower mean scores on the three measures than their Spanish counterparts. For example, more Spanish athletes felt their future careers in basketball were assured than Chinese athletes did. This finding can be attributed to the fact that more Spanish athletes were responsive to their coaches’ efforts and appreciated the sacrifices their coaches made than Chinese players.
Discussion
The research highlighted the significance of positive coach-athlete relationships in sports, particularly in basketball. The literature recognizes a dyadic relationship between coaches and their athletes. While this relationship is evident, the type – unidirectional, bidirectional, or multidirectional – largely determines the outcomes.
A unidirectional relationship between a coach and athletes means that only one party benefits, which may lead to a lack of motivation on the part of the other. A bidirectional relationship means that all parties are active participants and benefit from the relationship. The research revealed that China fosters a more wholesome relationship between athletes and coaches, as they prioritize both talent and personal growth (Gencer, 2020). The CART-Q theoretical framework recognizes three critical elements of any dyadic relationship.
Athletes in China felt that their coaches focused more on outcomes, hence neglecting the emotional needs of the players. As a result, the athletes felt that the coaches’ feelings were more generic than they were personal. On the other hand, Spanish athletes commended the liking and trust that their personal feelings with their coaches cultivated. Participants from both countries revealed that they felt the coaches were committed to their professional growth and development.
Commitment refers to the intentional, long-term partnership between a coach and an athlete (Jowett, Kanakoglou, & Passmore, 2012). Investment and growth in areas beyond sports is one way coaches and athletes can cultivate this partnership. Spanish athletes were better positioned to achieve this commitment because their coaches encouraged a balance between academics and sports. Sportspeople retire at a relatively younger age compared to other employees. Failure to invest in other aspects of life can lead to poor life outcomes after retirement.
The study also examined the concepts of commitment, complementarity, and closeness in relation to age and gender. The results showed that older athletes felt that their coaches were committed, and they were closer and more likely to complement the coaches’ efforts. This finding can be attributed to the fact that older players are more receptive and have had more experience in informing their decisions and expectations.
Younger athletes, on the other hand, may not feel the same way due to higher expectations and a lack of experience. Based on gender, it was interesting to find that more female athletes had positive responses compared to their male counterparts. Although athletes from each country had a different perspective on their coaches and the relationships they shared, it was evident that the approaches were almost similar.
Conclusion
The study revealed that athlete-coach relationships differ between China and Spain. Using the CART-Q questionnaire helped to identify the constructs under which the relationship can be measured and analyzed. These constructs include commitment, closeness, and complementarity.
The study found that the type of relationship between the coach and athlete determines the professional achievements of both the team and individual players. Athletes who felt appreciated, liked, trusted, and respected were more likely to perform better in basketball than players who felt that the coaches did not respect them. Similarly, athletes revealed that they are more likely to gain more from coaching if the coach showcases commitment to future partnerships. Therefore, coaches must focus on the future of the athletes as much as they focus on winning games each day.
References
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