Introduction
Women have portrayed significant roles on theological issues in modern world. Major issues such as; environmental, politics and women ordination have largely played an epicenter for women theologians. This paper will discuss women theological issues. The focus will encompass; assessment of women ordination, diaconate and empirical biblical view. Further, the paper will embrace modern religions and the role of women theology.
Ordination of Women
The challenge of women ordination is a theological question in contemporary ministries. According to Sawyer (158), the conventional theology of orders embraced by theologians was articulated to reflect church practices and understanding. However, the practices have still persisted in modern practices and largely appears to appropriate with conventional theory. Without ordination in the early church, neither man nor woman would be assigned responsibilities equivalent to modern laymen and women in executing his or her duties (Sawyer, 177).
Ordination is termed as a process in which a person is consecrated, in other words, it is a process in which a person is entrusted with responsibilities in executing or administering religious rites or duties. Women consecration is a contentious issue in religious groups or denominations where either the ritual of consecration or the role of an ordained person accomplishes (Sawyer, 259). The ordination rite has traditionally been a preserve for a man basing on cultural proscriptions and theological canons.
Biblical Context of Women and Theology
The New Testament in recognizing the old covenant refers to priesthood as a preserve for male. The practice was anchored on strong guidelines of Hebrew masculine society. This indicates that women did not posses a religious or political privilege in Israel. The interpretation of this statement may seem wanting but women marginalization in formal worship may have been attributed to being sanctified prostitutes in antique Canaanite sects. However, it can be attested that several rites froths that women were exposed to and susceptible legislations limited women from ascending to priesthood. Besides, “Male-controlled” conjecture of early Israelites was also re-enforced by firm mystical elucidations of “compliance of women to men” (Clifford, 69).
New Testament brings in a new theological perspective of women ordination. According to Isherwood (69), it is noted that, Christianity spread quickly because of strong patriarchal inclination. It did not favor the imperative of social and public roles of women. The Leviticus doctrines in the Old Testament contributed to patristic replication on Christian ministry. To illustrate this point, Isherwood explains that, Christian ministers were not referred to as “priest” till the third century(68).The ascription of “priest” is linked to two major growths; the tendency in distinguishing the establishment of old and New Testament and elucidation of sacrificial context of Eucharist. Therefore, a priest was asserted as a person who directed sacrifice of the Eucharist. In the New Testament, priesthood was engulfed with codes, laws, philosophies and practices which replicated the sacral context of Old Testament. One of these phenomenon was perception of sacral cleanliness as a compromise when charming definite actions. These actions encompassed sexual powers. Isherwood (107) states that, this laid a basis for growth of church laws regarding religious continence which, on the other hand, served to limit the notion of women priests from actively taking role in church matters because they were seen as unclean than men.
Women Deacons
The difficulty in affirming the extent to which the term diaconate” means or the connotation of the rite by which women were ordained to diaconate is challenging to fix. The Roman Catholic for several centuries admitted women in this order by ordination. The practice of ordination was similar to the one practiced on men (Isherwood, 89).However, women diaconal ministry was limited than that of men, they were limited to duties or ministries which were less inappropriate for men. In this case, women diaconate was favored in administering the sacrament of orders. Besides, women ministry was preserved for a “diaconate of service” non-liturgical and non sacramental ministry (Isherwood, 72).
Creation
The New Testament explains that, men are “leaders” and women are subordinated to them hence this equally applies to a church setting. Thus, ordination was a preserve for men not women. Paul notes in 1cor 14:3-12, it was the divine order of creation for subordination of women to men. He builds his basis on the fact that, man was created for woman and not the other way (Hinsdale, 54). This establishes a link between the order of mediation and subordination. Further, Hinsdale alleges that, the authority of power progresses from God, man and woman in a descending order. These explanations provide basis as to why women may not conduct prayers or prophesy with a veiled head.
World Religions and Women Theology
Chinese Culture
According to the Chinese culture, the society viewed the men as the dominant superior beings, this contributed to Confucianism. Cosmic order was conserved in religious matters such as sanctity of the family and ancestral spirits worship. Women were theoretical in streamlining the galactic order (Sharma, 129). The society greatly
supported the biological responsibilities of a woman. The role of women was analyzed by their conformity to social circles and exemplifying the traditions governing their sexual life. Failure to abide by the values in an ethnic group resulted to harsh treatments and cruelty by the society (Sharma, 72).
A vast number of women in the lower ethnic religions were governed by the trends in the society and religion. A clear set of norms and values was in place for the society to clearly distinguish a ‘man’s world’ from a woman’s. All these were about rituals. Women were not allowed to voice their opinions. For instance, only boys would attend school while girls at a tender age often years were initiated into young women and were expected to learn how to behave like women (Borg, 69). Women were collectively regarded as a unit rather than being based as individuals and a ritual code was in place to judge their behaviors. Women were viewed as home keepers and were supposed to be prudent (Sharma, 152). The fame of a woman was measured by her career path growth and the number of concubines and husbands she possessed.A faithful woman was respected more than an unfaithful one. A woman’s sexual desire was an object of both condemnation and envy from the men. But only those women who were capable of conception and motherhood were susceptible to religion and were free to express their opinions. It created unfairness among ethnic religions and discrimination against unprivileged women who had low self esteem (Borg, 190).
An unmarried woman and one who could not conceive were independent on the society thus subjected to cruelty from both the male and their fellow women, contrary to their fertile counterparts who were dependent. According to Sharma (187), barrenness was seen as a major setback to a woman punishable by God. The society positively regarded women who adhered to social ways and exercised sexual values. Failure to adhere to family values led to a woman being accused of indulging to wicked ways. The ethnic religions, which depended on particularism, faced threats due to identity issues. For instance, all Jews had to be converted into Judaism. The need of loyalty and unity gave birth to universalism with the kingdoms coming into place. Women had a voice in the initial reforms and had direct involvement with the group experiences and marriage was sacramentalized as affirmed by Sharma (149). Universalism reduced the effect of male chauvinism as it put emphasis on equality to religion. Women were no longer viewed simply as homemakers and mothers.
Islam
According to Islamic, marriage is seen as normative. Islam clearly defined and outlined the roles of men and women. The categorical disarray of the roles of men and women formed a basis of Islamic law. The holy Quran view men to be superior to women and expected them to act as protectors. Women were viewed as homemakers and source of property when it came to bride price (Sharma, 235). The women had to cover themselves with a veil and be hidden from the public glare. The mosque and any other formal place was a limited go zone for women. All this took a new leaf when Prophet Mohammed discovered that Islam women even without soliciting them they were strongly committed to him (Clifford, 89). This made him to come up with reforms which improved women’s position. It was also observed that through dancing and singing, they motivated the warriors during wars. Henceforth, the women were viewed as no lesser gender to men.
Vigil (78) points out that, the equality points are firmly emphasized in the holy Quran which quotes that before God’s eyes, all men and women are equal. Islam was an open forum to reforms, for instance, women could keep dowry, determine her husbands’ number of wives, abolish female infanticide and granted permission to inherit (Sharma, 237). Purdah showcased clearly that men were superior to their women counterparts and segregation was taking roots. Thus, women were stopped from being modest in the public view and their bodies’ veiled while in public. In order to protect their identity. Purdah customs ensured control and protection of women whether far away from home or near. The Arabs resolved to selfishly protect their women. Islam also proposed direct access to God and the marriage stage was seen as a must.
Christianity
According to Christianity, clarity had not been established yet as to the findings so far reached. Christianity began as a reform and belonged to middle range scale. Two conflicting views were realized, one stating the equality of the two human genders while the other dictating that men are dominant over women in all aspects of life. The entire family was brought into the limelight implying how Christianity valued the family life (Sharma, 222). In Christianity, women were involved in other roles which were previously viewed as men’s such as evangelizing, teaching, leading congregations and prophesying. Men view powerful and independent women as a major threat that needed to be closely watched and controlled.There was a constant emergence of conflicts which were either resolved by either hanging or a trial.
To counter these problems, men would come up with stern measures such as killing defiant women in order to regain control over them.Whenever massive killings took place, the protesting women would flee the scene to be missionaries in different areas and carry on with their duties (Vigil, 109).During this constant relocation process they met and partnered with fellow women from different churches with similar agendas. These women were faced with a lot of hindrances but they managed to overcome them due to their commitments to their work. They regarded their mission with utmost seriousness it needed but male resistance was strongly felt mostly at their homes and in their local churches. The men resolved to brutally define women’s role in the house and implement equality measures in marginalized communities. In the whole protestant community, the male gender was dominant but in other denominations, the female gender was the majority (Vigil, 98).
Buddhism
Buddhism doctrine speculates it as being democratic. Buddhism had a preference of simplicity but they also hold strong family ties. Both the male and their female counterparts were looked upon as being equal but the male gender was accorded high esteem. The monastic order was put in place for women and with it came an additional eight rules for the control of monks and safeguarding of authority. Tantra had a positive influence on women as it permitted appropriate religious roles and activities which were viewed as men’s obligations (Sharma, 88). Tantra reversed preset cultures and presented women with alternative measures to the normative measures of religion.
A number of high class and independent women could not participate in Tantra due to its radical stance. Majority of women were previously regarded as lay people but they were later transformed into siddhas (accomplished ones) (Sharma, 128).Basically, the principal of fairness and equality was displayed; despite the fact that monks disregarded women whenever it came to issues of power and leadership.The first priority was fulcrum to the male gender and his ways but it also attracted women. Over the evolving years, Buddhism has been perceived as a religion though it initially started as a reform. Women, as mothers were highly regarded in the society though neither marriage nor motherhood was highly accorded (Clifford, 113). The woman was seen as a giver which was employed in her daily kitchen operations.Buddhists believed in life after death and the women figure was also included in salvation which, they held, took place in some future birth (Sharma, 131).
Women were generally viewed as a channel of continuity through procreation. Simplicity was highly regarded in Buddhism because of their belief that it brings salvation. Buddhist Tantra, the leading among Buddhist learning institutions, had recorded enormous statistics of highly ranked female teachers and practitioners. A female siddha (accomplished ones) has an option of denouncing traditionally her feminine duties contrary to a female tantric (Sharma, 128). A woman would in a nuns order find a home, practice religion and exercise her scholarly talents. The co-existing relationship between the female gender and nature led to an improved status of women. Despite the fact that a monastic order and spiritual equality was put in place, the status of the nuns was eventually lost. Buddhism eventually disappeared due to the order for women, and its place was taken by Hinduism. Nuns were blamed by the monks for the fall of Buddhism.
Taoism
Taoism was a general substitute of Confucianism. It was in direct contact with the people at the ground levels. Confucianism controlled women but with the emergence of Taoism, a relief for women was realized. Taoism had a great impact on the image of a woman. According to Ruether(52),woman was clearly distinguished from a male based on their sexuality and anatomical structure though they were not accorded due consideration. Immortal beings were free to have sex.
In Taoism, women were regarded as models. The symbolisms of feminism such as water, river gorge valley and mother could highly be linked to darkness, openness, moistness and concavity of a woman reproductive system and the womb. These symbols were to measure against the aspects of male dominance that was extreme in the political control Ruether (160). In Taoism women were in a position to reach great heights and achieve all eight grades of perfection. Women were in a position to own a monastery, play key roles as shamanistic agents and be very successful alchemists. Taoism based as a perfect ground for women to measure up against Confucianism but neo-Confucianism was very harsh to women.
Conclusion
The power of religion can be compared to the power of nature, where a woman’s contribution determines the overall result of a performance. Women in the present day society are engaged in various ministries in the church than ordained women deacons than it would have been done in ancient church. This is where the unordained” frequently performed once only the “ordained” could frequently do. Women have contributed significantly in modern Christian churches in areas of; preaching, pastoral duties and teaching.
Most people in Anglican, Roman Catholic or Orthodox would be satisfied to “ordain” women to these ministries. The crusade for ordination of women is a shift inclined in exerting importance of sacramental ministry in the church and the festivity of the Eucharist.
Works Cited
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Sharma, Arvind. Women in World Religions New York: SUNY Press, 1987.
Vigil, José M. Theology of Religious Pluralism.Berlin: LIT Verlag Münster, 2008.