Introduction
Discrimination in its most general form is the differentiation among persons to make decisions about those individuals and can occur based on legitimate factors (Aguirre and Turner 27). Discrimination traditionally has been defined as unjustified negative actions that deny “individuals or groups of people equality of treatment” (Allport 51 cited Aguirre and Turner 27). Discrimination on the grounds of sex or grounds of people’s married status is unlawful, except in certain special circumstances. However, employers and designated training bodies can take positive action to promote equality.
Indirect discrimination occurs if conditions that effectively create discrimination are applied. These could be certain criteria on job specifications or advertisements if they tend to preclude women or men. The main causes of discrimination are racial prejudices, gender, national and religious stereotypes, social categorization, and sexual orientation.
The Causes of Discrimination
Racial prejudices are caused by a negative attitude toward a social group or a person perceived to be a member of that group. Following Aguirre and Turner “prejudice is as the attitudinal and especially the affective biases that exist about members of groups other than those to which one belongs” (Aguirre and Turner 43). Racial profiling is one of the vivid examples of racial discrimination and racial prejudices. In recent years the question of racial profiling by police becomes an issue of the day for American citizens.
Racial profiling or “Driving While Black” policies followed by police cause great public concern as a direct violation of human rights and law in general. The problem is that the black population regarded “presumptively criminal based upon their race” (Kennedy 13). According to statistical results, racial profiling is experienced by 34% of the minority population and African Americans (Discrimination by Type 2007). Although, “One common complaint about racial profiling is that using race (say, blackness) as one of several factors in selecting targets of surveillance is fundamentally and necessarily racist” (Kennedy 14).
Racial prejudices can be found in the workplace where white individuals show more racial bias in their employment-related responses, particularly for attributions of personal qualities when their decisions are perceived to threaten the traditionally advantaged status that they have had over Black individuals. In the workplace, about 21 % of African Americans are faced with racial discrimination (Aguirre and Turner 47).
Discrimination can be caused by gender or sex differences based on historical inequalities between women and men. The dilemma of inequality in employment is one of the most imperative issues these days. The problem is that the society in which we live has been created historically by males. According to statistical results, the number of complaints has increased since 2000 even though laws and penalties are prevalent (Discrimination by Type 2007). For this reason, the main question concerns the causes of complaints and the common sense of organizational authorities unable to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace. In 2000 $54.6 million were paid as sexual harassment charges (Sexual Harassment Charges, 2004).
Many women now claim that they have fewer opportunities to succeed at their work than men do and have to exert greater effort to be promoted. Men are more readily employed and supported by their employers than women. Despite equal rights opportunities and affirmative action policies, women occupy lower-paid jobs in contrast to men. As a whole, the disparity between the expected behaviors of women and the appropriate professional behaviors makes it extremely difficult for most women to prove to their male peers and supervisors they have “what it takes” to be leaders (Aguirre and Turner 77).
Stereotypes
Negative racial and religious stereotypes cause discrimination and unequal treatment of individuals. In general, a stereotype is a generalization of beliefs about a group or its members that is unjustified because it reflects faulty thought processes or overgeneralizations, factual incorrectness, inordinate rigidity, misattributions, or rationalizations for prejudiced attitudes or discriminatory behaviors (Gilbert et al. 357). Statistical results state that around 15% of employees suffer from negative stereotypes caused by their religious values or race (Discrimination by Type 2007).
Cultural and national stereotypes generalize the basic features of a particular nationality making them the characteristics of all members of this group. There are different stereotypes about America as a cultural and national unity (Aguirre and Turner 67). These stereotypes differ from one another created by different nations and ethical groups. Half a century ago, there were a lot of negative stereotypes which “labeled” Asian Americans as lazy and unskilled workers (Aguirre and Turner 65). These negative social images resulted in racism, genocide, and sexism, scapegoating, etc.
Most Asian Americans were publicly humiliated and disgraced as low social groups. To preserve their cultural identity, many Asian nations built isolated communities in America like Chinatown (Aguirre and Turner 65). “Discrimination or unfair treatment, at the level of the individual has at its foundation the recognition that people belong to different social groups” (Schuman et al. 54). For instance, religious stereotypes are based on a negative image of religious minorities and their values (Dovidio and Gaertner 52).
Historically, some religious beliefs (e.g., Islam, Hinduism, or Shinto) have been used to sanctify the discriminatory rulings of a dominant group against another group in terms of work opportunities and mobility (e.g., women, lower castes). For example, India actively designs affirmative action programs and hiring quotas to assist the Dalits in attaining employment in nontraditional occupations. However, those who convert from Hinduism to Christianity lose their eligibility for such programs, whereas those who convert to Buddhism and Muslims do not, because Christianity historically opposes the caste system (Schuman et al. 56).
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation, gay or lesbian, can cause discrimination in public life or at work. Usually, gays, lesbians, and transsexuals are termed the “invisible minority” in the workplace because they keep a low profile of their sexual orientation and because it is difficult to obtain hard evidence of workplace discrimination against them. Nevertheless, like other minority groups, they may face similar discriminatory acts at work, from alienation and harassment by colleagues to dismissal.
For instance, “in the USA individuals are separated from the U. S. military if they admit they are gay or lesbian or there is evidence of homosexual conduct” (Schuman et al. 57). This policy is defended by arguments that gays and lesbians would compromise military unit cohesion, standards of morale, and discipline (Ensher et al. 52). In general, the right to gay marriage should be pursued as a political strategy to attain general equality for gay men.
According to statistical results, around 7% of employees experience dissemination because of gay or lesbian orientation (Discrimination by Type 2007). Under the present-day conception, the state’s recognition and regulation of marriage do not privilege this institution but merely make it available to those who wish to structure their relationships following it (Schuman et al. 57).
A Critical Aspect of Social Categorization
Social categorization may cause negative attitudes towards other people and their behavior patterns. A critical aspect of social categorization is whether a person is perceived to be a unique individual, a member of the perceiver’s group, or a member of another group. For instance, because of social categorization “low-class location prevents people to obtain social respect and opportunities available for middle and high-class citizens” (Aguirre and Turner 121). It is difficult for working-class families to give good education to their children. Once categorization occurs, members of low classes are viewed as similar to one another and as having common characteristics.
According to statistical results, social categorization is a typical problem for 5% of the population (Discrimination by Type 2007). For instance, the content of specific group stereotypes (e.g., lazy, incompetent, emotionally typical for upper-class society) frequently evolve from existing differences in group roles or statuses within a society and serves to justify and perpetuate these status differences (Dovidio and Gaertner 52).
Conclusion
Racial prejudices, gender, national and religious stereotypes, social categorization, and sexual orientation ruin effective and positive personal relations and increase envy and hatred between different racial and social groups. The facts mentioned above show that negative social images resulted in genocide and sexism, scapegoating, racial profiling, and unequal rights and opportunities, etc.
Even for people who appear non-prejudiced in their public responses, bias against members of stigmatized groups may be manifested when situations are complex, when the appropriateness of an applicant’s qualifications or student’s abilities is not entirely clear, or when decisions involve the assessment of multiple dimensions. Discrimination harms the motivation and performance of individuals, their image, and their self-identity.
References
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Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. Affirmative action, unintentional racial biases, and intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues 52, (1996): 51-75.
Ensher, E. A., Grant-Vallone, E. J., & Donaldson, S. I. Effects of perceived discrimination on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and grievances. Human Resource Development Quarterly 12, (2001): 53-72.
Gilbert, D., Fiske, S., Lindzey, D. (Eds). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In The Handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, (2001): 357-411.
Kennedy, R. Suspect Policy. The New Republic 221, (1999): 30-35.
Schuman, H., Steeh, C., Bobo, L., Krysan, M. Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Sexual Harassment Charges EEOC & FEPAs Combined: FY 1992 – FY 2004. Web.