Introduction
Crosby’s argument is hard to fully grasp without taking a step back and looking at the book as a whole. The theme of population explosion enriches Crosby’s argument throughout the book, as it raises the veil on the historic mystery of the Eurasian success and ultimate supremacy of the world we know today. This revolution, which started in the Antilles caused by Columbus’s first voyage in 1492, began the “Columbian Exchange” which in effect brought on the explosion of economic prowess, population growth and cultural reform. This was done through the transfer of biota, pathogens, and people.
The process of Columbian exchange had an essential impact on almost every society on the planet. This was the reason of spreading new diseases (European in America, and American in Europe), and because of the lack of immunity among indigenous people, these diseases became real epidemics, and depopulated numerous peoples.
The inhabitants of the earth are affected by the Columbian Exchange in a great value, and as a result of such effect, new diseases appeared and the problem was that indigenous people did not have immunity to those diseases. As a result, the diseases had depopulated many cultures.
On the other hand, this exchange originated the circulation of crops and plants between America and Europe. The new agricultural plants were brought to Europe such as maize and potatoes, which later became the key products in Europe and Asia in 18th century. Africa was offered manioc and the peanut. Europeans flourished and supported growth in populations on soils, but all these attempts did not give large yields (Crosby, 1972).
Biological Consequences
To begin with, there is strong necessity to mention that the exchange of customs and traditions within these civilizations has essentially changed the ways of life of the countries on European, American African and Asian continents. The fact is that, of 26 most important crops, eight originated in Americas. America continues to influence the value of the crop all over the world, especially that which was first grown in the Americas (to consider the numbers, the activities will be of one third of all crops produced in the world). In the light of this fact, it should be stated that the economic prowess of the biological exchange of two worlds became the reason of improving the economic relations among continents. Thus, various crops and other agricultural plants started to be produced for the internal needs of European and Asian countries, and then, the trade processes were adjusted. Consequently, all the economic prowess and processes were based on agricultural successes (Crosby, 1972).
As for the matters of population growth, there is strong necessity to emphasize that the new foods became the bases of new diets. People of all the continents achieved an opportunity to extend their rations. Crosby (1972), in his research, emphasizes the following fact, South America was the only country which grew potatoes before AD 1000. The situation has changed lately and already in 1840s “Ireland was so dependent on the potato that a diseased crop led to the devastating Irish Potato Famine” (p. 78). Potatoes were then given to Portuguese traders (16 century), who took it to Africa, where traditional crops were replaced by new product. “New crops that had come to Asia from the Americas via Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to the population growth in Asia, too” (Crosby, 1972, p. 78).
As for the cultural integration, it should be stated that this process appeared to be deep and thorough, so most people eve do not think over that traditional Irish potatoes and the image of Comanche Indian on a horse are the results of the Columbian exchange process. Originally, the appearing of new foodstuffs in the rations of European peoples, and innovative traditions brought to the territory of both Americas changes the images of these two worlds. Cultural exchange makes it possible for the import and export of the food components of different countries. The inhabitants of different countries made it possible to use the plants and animals, which were unknown for them before. Thus American Indian Comanche tribe started using horses as the battle units, and this became the sigh of honor, courage and battle mastery, as beginners were not trusted to ride a horse. The use of animal forces was principally strange to Indians, as human forces were used for any type of activity. Thus, Indians valued horses not only for the additional battle advantage, but also as the transportation, hunting instrument. As it is emphasized by Crosby (1972),
The Comanche emerged as a distinct tribe around 1700, breaking away from the Shoshone in order to adopt a new nomadic lifestyle made possible only by the horse. The Comanche, who quickly developed an unrivalled reputation for skilled horsemanship, soon came to dominate the southern Great Plains. The horse ‑ Europe’s favorite domesticated animal ‑ had become an indispensable part of Comanche culture and society (p. 184).
In the light of this fact, it should be stated that the cultural exchange between the two worlds on the basis of biological exchange and the adaptation of social structures for implementing new agricultural traditions and using new animals are immense. Two isolated civilizations gave everything possible to each other for the further development. (Crosby, 1972)
Pathogens
Surely, the Columbian exchange was featured not only with the positive features. Negative factors were also rather essential, as along with new crops, plants and animals, but also bacteria and viruses. Thus, various researchers stated that up to 80 percent of native population of both Americas was wiped out by the diseases, which Europeans brought from their motherland. Originally, it is hard to estimate the economic prowess, which was originated by this bacteriological exchange, nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the services of Indian shamans, magicians and wizards became increasingly popular, as the diseases had to be cured. In some measure this was the barrier for developing any relations, as Indians considered that these diseases are the curse, which people with beards brought to their land. Moreover, as Europeans brought slaves from Africa for works on the sugar plantations, Indians also caught bacteria from African continent. Crosby (1972, p. 199) is sure that the Columbian exchange of infections is a matter of immense controversy, as these infections are closely connected with the demographic history of the country. The doubts appeared when the question turned to the Amerindians post-1492 pandemics. The contestable part of the question is whether the pandemic virus could reach people through the cliff.
There was one more pathogen which was used by Europeans for reaching their aims. In other words, Europeans discovered the pathogen, which could help all the nations on the world in hunting or wars, when protection was necessary. The problem appeared when Indians refused to give Europeans gold. The situation was that all idols and other religious issues were made out of gold by Indians, and they refused to exchange it to anything. Europeans used their innovation in the war with Indians, they were killing them for gold in reality, but in general, was considered as military, religious and traditional reasons. (Crosby, 1972)
Originally, religious war was arranged with the assistance of Catholic Christian Church, and priests were arranging missions along the territories of South America. Later, when Europeans had more influence on the South American territories, priests could easily arrange crusades against local population and behaved like inquisitors in Medieval Europe. All the cultural values were robbed and sailed to Europe. Libraries and temple archives were destroyed and the books burnt. Surely, these actions were regarded as the hostile behavior, and Indians did not wish to bear it. Thus, the population decreased, as well as European colonizers were also subjected to danger from the side of Indians. Nevertheless, if Americans could kill only warriors, Conquistadors assassinated everyone: men, women, children and old men. (Crosby, 1972)
As for the matters of cultural exchange from the point of view of various pathogens, it should be stated that the attempts of such an exchange became the reason of bloody rivalry and assassination of the local population. The representatives of these continents were too different from the cultural perspective. Religious differences became the reason of inquisition and killing of the Indian priests shamans, and eradicating any cultural practices associated with demonism, paganism and magic. All the cultural values of Maya, Aztecs or Incas were estimated only in monetary equivalent, and all the knowledge, which were collected by these great civilizations were ruthlessly destroyed.
People
Originally, the human factor in the process of the Columbian exchange was the key one, and all the changes were associated with the human activity and communication of several different cultures. As for the matters of economy, it should be stated that there were some attempts to adjust the strong trade relations undertaken. The fact is that, the trade relations were the principally new relations for the South American Population and for the Indians of North America. If Incas, Maya or Aztecs were the developed civilizations, North American Indians were using simple exchange of goods and services. Nevertheless, the attempts to adjust the trade relations resulted the eradication of up to 90% of the population of South America, as the gold, which Indians could offer blinded Europeans, and they started the bloody war for the gold and other precious metals. Later, colonizers started arranging farms and, and the Indians, as well as African slaves worked at those plantations. (Crosby, 1972)
As for the matters of population growth, it should be stated that it Europeans, searching for better life and looking for their destiny. They became the free hunters, planters, treasure seekers. Some of them preferred studying the traditions and customs of the Indians. However, the only fact that should be stated as the most important is the fact that people were attracted by the opportunities which these territories offered, and were inspired by the successes of those who had already moved to South Africa. Portuguese and Spanish colonizers had been arriving to South America for at least five centuries. This became the reason for founding new colonies, which then became independent countries. (Crosby, 1972)
Taking into consideration the previously stated facts of the cultural exchange, it should be stated that the cultural aspect of the human factor is valued from the point of view of appearing principally new culture based on the mix of Indian and European cultures. The fact is that, colonizers, which settled on the territory of contemporary Brazil, Argentina, Chile etc appeared too far from their motherlands, consequently, they aimed to preserve Spanish and Portuguese traditions. However, contacts with American Indians made them introduce some elements of Indian culture. Moreover, some traditions appeared as a result of particular flora and fauna of the South America.
Conclusion
Finally, there is strong necessity to mention that the process of the Columbian exchange appeared to be one of the key occasions, which changed the course of history and influenced the development of European society, as well as changing the political map of the world. Originally, this process may be regarded from the perspective of three factors – biological consequences, negative impact of the contact of two worlds, and from the perspective of human factor. From the perspective of these three factors the development of European society was essentially accelerated at the expense of South American gold, new agricultural products. The imperialistic interests of European states had originated the appearance of new colonies and then the new countries on the South American continent. The new customs and traditions are now regarded as the indigenous for the peoples of both worlds, nevertheless, some cultural factors and traditions are the result of Columbian exchange and contacts of the representatives of the Old and New Worlds.
References
Crosby, A. W., Otto von Mering. “The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492”. Greenwood Press, 1972.