Cultural Division of Labor
Throughout history, the U.S. labor market has undergone significant changes. Various transformations, events, and trends have impacted this area of society. The cultural division of labor is one of the most prominent issues whose imprints can be traced in modern society.
Research indicated that “in modern industrial societies, work has become so specialized that each trade is broken down into seemingly innumerable specialties” (Hodson & Sullivan, 2011, p. 4). For example, 2,101 were employed in agriculture and related sectors, while only 77,000 African Americans were employed in this sector (“Labor force statistics,” n.d.). The same can be observed in other spheres, such as wholesale trade (2,563 and 297) or (12,547 and 2,069) (“Labor force statistics,” n.d.). Studying factors that occurred at various stages of history can provide more valuable insight into this problem.
Migration
One factor of particular significance was the increase in migration to the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. It is noted that immigration has contributed to innovation and shaped the development of many industries (“How immigration changed U.S. society,” 2022). However, “whites made up the majority of the labor force (78 percent), Blacks and Asians constituted an additional 12 percent and 6 percent, respectively” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016, p. 1). These statistics indicate that, despite the positive aspects of incorporating cultural characteristics into employment in the United States, they have also contributed to the perpetuation of discrimination in the country.
Civil Rights Movement
Another historical event that has contributed to change is the development of the movement for equal rights for individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Notably, the Civil Rights movement has expanded educational opportunities. Previously, many individuals were unable to secure jobs due to insufficient qualifications, which prevented them from improving their quality of life.
However, in the 20th century, this situation changed. Research underlined that “among people ages 25 and older, the share of the labor force with at least a high school diploma was more than 90 percent for Whites, Blacks, and Asians” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016, p. 3). Moreover, approximately 74 percent of Hispanics also held a high school degree, which enabled them to secure more decent jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). Thus, expanding the number of representatives of different cultures and promoting the equal rights movement played a significant role in limiting the cultural division of labor in the United States.
Globalization
Another trend that has had a significant impact on the cultural division of labor is globalization. The expansion of companies’ influence in global markets has led to a significant increase in the representation of diverse cultures in the workplace. However, the first changes associated with globalization were reflected in the wage disparity. This is because many employers did not have confidence in foreign workers and preferred individuals who were originally from their own country.
Thus, a significant gap has formed between representatives of cultural communities, evident for a long time in the U.S. employment market. However, over time, this trend has shifted, and in modern society, the contributions of foreign specialists to company work are highly valued.
Gendered Division of Labor
Biological Differences
Another area of difference that has changed with the development of society is the gendered division of labor. One of the primary reasons for this differentiation is the biological differences between men and women. Hence, for a long time, there was an opinion that men are hardworking and can perform more complex tasks that require physical strength. Köppen and Trappe (2019) noted that family roles and childbearing are unique factors in examining this aspect. Henceforth, women were more often housewives, whose main tasks were caring for children and the household, while men were the family’s primary breadwinners.
This trend gradually shifted to the job market, where women increasingly worked in the service sector, while men held more senior positions. Of particular note was the stereotype that women are more emotional, which may impact their work approach. Thus, statistics show that more women were employed in retail trade (7,833 thousand) than men (8,462 thousand), and in education and health services, with women accounting for 26,381 thousand and men for 8,996 thousand (“Labor force statistics,” n.d.). This could be because this profession was perceived as more feminine in terms of the qualities required.
This kind of separation was also particularly evident in job advertisements. For example, in its advertising, the famous Walt Disney Company focused on the need for qualified men to work. In this case, there is an opinion that only men possess the necessary skills and abilities to perform such an action. Another advertisement stated, “Wanted – Two German girls: One to cook, wash and iron and one for chambermaid and waitress; private family. Call 10 o’clock, 242 West 130th St.” (“26 utterly fascinating vintage job ads,” n.d., para. 16). In this case, there is a prejudice that only women can be employed, which is related to household chores and the service sector.
WWII
The Second World War was a pivotal historical event that significantly influenced the division of labor between men and women. Before the onset of hostilities, society afforded both genders equal rights and opportunities; men worked in industry, while women performed household chores. However, due to the need to send men to military posts, many countries, including the United States of America, experienced a severe labor shortage. This circumstance contributed to the hiring of women into male-dominated professions that had previously been considered inaccessible to them. Although most of these female workers had to leave their positions after the war, the Second World War had a profound impact on the movement’s future and the pursuit of equality in this area.
Women’s Rights Movement
When considering the gender division of labor, it is essential to acknowledge the feminist movement, which has made significant contributions to changes in this area. This movement set itself the task of creating an equal society that provided equal opportunities for men and women (Hartsock, 2020). Feminism emphasizes that the existing division in labor between the sexes is a priority for men and puts women in a position of inferiority to men.
Due to these circumstances, numerous protests emerged, which ultimately led to the introduction of various legislative measures supporting women in the labor market. One such legislative initiative was the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which protects against wage discrimination based on sex (“Equal pay for equal work,” n.d.). Thus, a critical historical event such as the feminist movement was a considerable driver of limiting wage discrimination and the gender division of labor in America, contributing to the balancing of rights and opportunities for male and female workers.
Current Situation
Currently, the picture of the gender division of labor has undergone significant changes. Thus, it is noted that “this difference is rapidly eroding today, with women making up over 46 percent of the labor force in the United States and Canada” (Hodson & Sullivan, 2011, p. 5). At the same time, it is worth paying attention to the period of the global pandemic, which has undergone significant transformations. Research in Australia and the United States revealed that “although both women and men report an increase in housework and parenting during the pandemic, such increases have been greater for women” (Waddell et al., 2021, p. 1760). Despite the long struggle to limit the gendered division of labor, modern events contribute to the separation of opportunities for men and women in the labor market.
The Rise of the Working Poor
Overview
The consideration of the phenomenon of the working poor is critical in studying the historical development of the labor market in the United States of America. This phenomenon is unique in that it shows the persistence of poverty among people who still live below the poverty line despite data on job advancements. Despite the possibility and accessibility of work for these groups, they are unable to improve their economic status and maintain a low quality of life. The phenomenon of the working poor has had several remarkable periods in the history of the United States of America, which necessitates research within the framework of this paper.
When studying the phenomenon under discussion, paying attention to factors such as individuals’ social backgrounds is necessary. Studies show that “members of society receive shares based on their positions and their families’ positions in the division of labor” (Hodson & Sullivan, 2011, p. 7). In other words, individuals often repeat the work patterns of their parents or relatives. Thus, this point of view suggests that there may be cases where a certain level of wealth and position is retained within the family and does not exceed it. Several indicators can contribute to this factor, among which accessibility and educational level are the most significant. This is because individuals with lower educational attainment are less likely to hold high and prestigious positions.
Industrialization
One of the most significant periods of growth for the working poor was the widespread industrialization and urbanization in the United States. At this critical moment in history, many people moved from rural to urban areas to work at newly opened enterprises. Chen et al. (2023) emphasized that “the global rate of urbanization (the share of urban population in total population) has increased from 43.4 % in 1991 to 55.7 % in 2019” (p. 104208). Thus, this historic event provided significant jobs for many people who needed them.
On the other hand, urbanization and industrialization have exacerbated the labor division faced by newly arrived individuals. This was because many people migrated to the cities to earn a living. As a result, there was a shortage of housing, leading to the former villagers living in harsh, unsatisfactory conditions. Moreover, employers exploited these circumstances, resorting to practices such as offering low wages and increasing work schedules. Thus, despite obtaining a new city job, many people remained below the poverty line.
WWII
The Second World War also significantly impacted the growth of the working poor. Following the end of the military conflict, the United States entered a period known as the Golden Age of Capitalism. It is pointed out that “the golden years of capitalism were the era of public works, infrastructure projects, and welfare programs which employed a sizeable portion of the population (Boudlal, 2021, para. 5).
A large number of residents of American states got jobs and were able to find a fairly respectable income. At the same time, the labor market’s growth and development were uneven, a consequence of many individuals remaining below the poverty line. This factor was provoked by the fact that this period was characterized by expansive welfare states and, critically, high taxes. In this regard, individuals found employment; however, due to the intense labor division and low wages, they were unable to secure a life above the poverty line.
Current Situation
The working poor is a significant issue in contemporary society. Multiple historical events have deepened the roots of this issue in the labor market, and its solution requires an integrated approach. Research indicated that “among persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, 3.4 percent of those usually employed full time were classified as working poor, compared with 14.1 percent of part-time workers” (“A profile of the working poor, 2015,” 2017, p. 2). In addition, it is indicated that women are more in the working poor category than men. Therefore, this phenomenon directly affects the gender division of labor.
References
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A profile of the working poor, 2015. (2017). U.S. Bureau of labor statistics.
Boudlal, K. (2021). What the Golden Age of (Western) Capitalism teaches us about economics. The Gazelle.
Chen, M., Huang, X., Cheng, J., Tang, Z., & Huang, G. (2023). Urbanization and vulnerable employment: Empirical evidence from 163 countries in 1991–2019. Cities, 135, 104208.
Equal pay for equal work. (n.d.). U.S. Department of Labor.
Hartsock, N. C. (2020). The feminist standpoint: Toward a specifically feminist historical materialism. In Feminist Theory Reader (pp. 267-277). Routledge.
Hodson, R., & Sullivan, T.A. (2011). The social organization of work. Cengage Learning.
How immigration changed U.S. society. (2022). CUNY.
Köppen, K., & Trappe, H. (2019). The gendered division of labor and its perceived fairness. Demographic Research, 40, 1413-1440.
Labor force statistics from the current population survey. (n.d.). U.S. Bureau of labor statistics.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity. BLS Reports.
Waddell, N., Overall, N. C., Chang, V. T., & Hammond, M. D. (2021). Gendered division of labor during a nationwide COVID-19 lockdown: Implications for relationship problems and satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(6), 1759-1781.