Introduction
Carr et al (2005) define a token economy as a treatment procedure that makes use the principles of operant conditioning. Gross & Drabman (2005, p.107) on the other hand defines a token economy as an in class, sometimes intensive reinforcement program used by teachers and instructors to maintain performance and behavior in the classroom.
Barkley (1990, p. 46) asserts that a token economy is a system that is used in behavior modification by employing positive reinforcements of target behavior on students.
Liberman (2000, p. 156) on his part adopts a more layman definition of token economies by alluding that they are programs through which students who may be individuals or entire classrooms use to accumulate points for showing desired behavior. He continues that the students will then later redeem the points accumulated for preferred activities or privileges.
The above definitions have adopted different disciplines from which the meaning of a token economy has been derived. However, one thing is clear, that token economies are used to improve behaviors on the people they are used on through the introduction of positive reinforcement. It’s important to note that token economies are based on the generalized conditioned reinforcement principle.
Carr et al (2005, p. 2) says that token economies are primarily used to increase and maintain appropriate or expected behaviors among students. An important element about token economy that is normally overlooked is the response cost procedure where children lose the points they have accumulated incase they engage in inappropriate behavior.
This paper will focus on an elaborate token economy plan that will include the target population, the required behaviors list of reinforcements and token costs for each menu, the tokens themselves and the mode of storage of the tokens.
Plan. Target population
Token economies are used on a variety of populations and under very varying circumstances. However, this token economy plan is targeting children with learning disabilities.
They include children diagnosed with disabilities such as conduct disorder, mental retardation, autism and attention deficit disorder. It’s important to note that a token economy system is implemented when other positive reinforcement methods have failed to produce to produce appropriate behavior in children.
Identification and definition of target behaviors
The teacher will choose two to four most important behaviors that he /she feels are problematic and that need change. According to Carr et al (2005, p. 1) the teacher will target behaviors that are reasonable in number besides being observable and relevant to the children’s goals in education.
The teacher will ensure children will be able to perform the chosen behaviors and they should be easily monitored by the teachers. The behaviors should be positively stated in a chart that can be accessed by every student. Examples of behaviors may include “completed home assignment in time”, “was early for class”, “and “observed class rules”.
The teacher will be free to choose either classroom related targeted behaviors to increase productivity and conduct related behaviors or both. Some of the required behaviors that are written positively are shown below.
“Turned in homework on time”
“Obeyed class rules”
“Played well with the other children”
“Was prepared for class”
“Percentage of math completed”
“Percentage of accurately completed reading”
Adopted from: O’Leary, K. & O’Leary, S. (1976). Classroom Management: The successful use of behavioral modification. New York: Pergamon Press.
Token selection
The teacher will select and avail tokens, which will be tangible items to which some value is attached. They may be points, coupons or poker chips that will be tamper proof and durable. Every goal will have a token value and will be assigned according to the difficulty of the goal to be attained.
Teachers will also have to come up with a way of awarding partial achievement of goals by the students. It important for teachers not to use highly valued tokens since the tokens will later on be given up for positive reinforcements.
Formulation of a method to help in keeping track of points and / or tokens
The teacher will develop a program of tracking the tokens or points accumulated by every student. That way both the teacher and the child will be able to easily monitor the progress of the child.
In cases where the tokens will be physical gifts like stars and stamps, it will be important for the teacher to place them out of reach of children to avoid unnecessary distraction.
Selection of powerful reinforcements
The teacher will select powerful rewards that children will get in return for their accumulated tokens. Filcheck & Mcneil (2004, p. 94) says that the power and effectiveness of a token lies in its reward value. At this stage, it’s important for teachers to realize that the rewards or reinforcements will be crucial for the success of the token economy program.
The teachers will also make sure that the children perceive the rewards as desirable and worth striving for. Furthermore, they will make sure the reward system menu is updated every time so that children don’t lose attention and interest. It’s important if teachers will involve children is selecting reward systems through discussion and observation.
Additionally, parents may be involved in suggesting the activities that the children favor so that they can be included in the reward system. The table below shows some of the reinforcements that can be used in system.
Adopted from: O’Leary, K. & O’Leary, S. (1976). Classroom Management: The successful use of behavioral modification. New York: Pergamon Press.
Establishment of the system of exchange
The teacher will establish a system that will guide who gets what for the tokens accumulated. This process will entail the teacher identifying the every goal and assigning the token value that the children will have to work for to get a reward. According to Liberman (2000, p. 160) initially the teacher will have to set the goals at a level that is easily achievable.
If the goal is set to high then it risks creating a perception among students that it’s not achievable effectively diminishing the importance of the system. It’s therefore for the teacher to monitor the performance of every student and setting the goals slightly above the baseline of the average performance level of the child. The logic here is to make the child believe that he/she is achieving success hence it will motivate him/her to do more.
Explanation to the children
The teacher will explain to the children what the program entails at a time appropriate for both the teacher and the student. The teacher will elaborate to the children of the behaviors that are expected and how they can be achieved. The teacher will also inform the students of the goals that the students will have to achieve for them to get the rewards. Additionally the teacher will reveal the rewards to the students at this stage.
Provision of feedback
The teacher will decide the mode of token allocation. For instance, he/ she may decide to allocate tokens for every occurrence of the expected behavior. Additionally, the tokens can be awarded by the teacher and predetermined intervals. At this stage, consistency and accuracy in awarding target behaviors will be important.
Additionally, the teacher will be encouraged to use praise and frequent social attention every time children achieve the desired behaviors. At this stage, the response cost technique can be employed.
Here children who will misbehave or fail to meet the proscribed behaviors will lose tokens hence will not be able to claim the reinforcements. Gross & Drabman (2005, p.115) says that it’s important that the response costs technique to be applied after the programs has run for some time to avoid discouragement of the children.
Rewarding
The teacher will specify in the plan the time when reviewing of the children’s progress towards the goal will be made. The teacher will determine if the child or students met the goals and the children will be allowed to choose the reward that they want according to the available guideline.
If the children did not achieve the goals, the teacher will inform them in a “matter of fact” way. However, the teacher will need to abstain from making corrective statements or statements that will reprimand the student.
Maintainace programming
Carrr et al (2005) says that the token economy system is very artificial and it has to withdrawn at some point. The teacher will analyze if there is any improvement in the behavior of the child as per the benchmarks he/she set.
In case there is improvement and withdrawal of the token economy process becomes necessary, Gross & Drabman (2005, p.120) recommends that there be a program in place to help the children maintain the behavior that they could have learned during the token economy program.
The most common way to change the program is to increase the number of token required for reward to be earned. For instance, if a child was allowed to accumulate tokens several times in one day, the frequency can be reduced to once a day as the behavior improves.
Another way to change the program is to substitute new problem behaviors as need be. The teacher will introduce new problems to which he/she will require the students to accumulate the same number of tokens or less.
It’s important that the teacher praises the child for the progress he/she has made when making the changes. The teacher will also need to explain to the children the need for change and the expectations as per the new changes.
References
Barkley, R.A. (1990) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Guilford.
Carr E.J et al (2005). Token Economy. New York: Sage Publications
Filcheck, H. A & McNeil, C.B. (2004) The use of token economies in preschool classrooms: practical and philosophical concerns. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 1, 94-104.
Gross, A.M & Drabman, R.S. (2005) Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy – Volume 2: Child clinical applications. Los Angeles: Sage Publications
Liberman, R.P. (2000) The token economy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1398.