Introduction
Every child has the right to basic education, health and quality life that is free from violence or intimidation. Each day, though, thousands of children around the world becomes victims and witnesses of systematic cases of physical, sexual, psychological, and emotional maltreatment and violence.
Indeed, child maltreatment has mutated into a huge global problem with far-reaching ramifications on the victims’ physical and psychological health, welfare and overall growth throughout their lifetimes and, by extension, on family and society in general (WHO, 2006, p. 1). Consecutive studies have revealed that children become a reflection of the environment in which they develop (Perry, 2004, para. 2).
Like any other member of society, children have the capacity to become self-regulating, reasonable and productive members of society if the environment is secure, conventional, and typified by relationally and cognitively augmented opportunities. However, this is usually not the case.
Today, millions of children grow in an environment that is chaotic, intimidating, and devoid of any supportive relationships, resulting in impulsive, destructive, inattentive and antisocial children. This paper aims to discuss how maltreatment of children affects their psychological growth and self-esteem.
By definition, child maltreatment and abuse refer to the physical, psychological and emotional mistreatment, sexual and commercial exploitation of children, as well as their neglect and neglectful treatment (WHO, 2006, p. 7). The term ‘child maltreatment’ is also used to signify a behavior towards a child that is widely perceived as outside the norms and societal values of conduct, and involves considerable risk of causing physical or psychological harm to the child (The MERCK Manuals, 2005, para. 1).
To date, child maltreatment remains a complex issue as its causes are multi-faceted and not well understood. According to 2006 WHO report “its dynamics and the factors that drive it, as well as effective prevention strategies, all differ markedly according to the victim’s age, the setting in which the maltreatment occurs, and the relationship between victim and perpetrator” (p.7). The perpetrators of child abuse include parents and family members, caregivers, strangers, healthcare workers, employers, friends, and other children.
Brief Statistics on Child Maltreatment
Many experts believe that child maltreatment is on the increase in many parts of the world due to a multiplicity of factors, key among them the rapid breakdown of societal values and difficult socio-economic conditions (Weber & Reynolds, 2004, p. 121). In 2002, about 1.8 million cases of child maltreatment were reported in the US (The MERCK Manuals, 2005, para. 2).
In the same year, 1400 children lost their lives in the US due to maltreatment and abuse, 75% of whom were below 4 years old. Also, the 2002 statistics revealed that children below the age of 3 years had the highest rate of victimization as 16/1000 children within this age category were physically, sexually or emotionally abused. These shocking revelations also proved that both sexes are equally affected by child maltreatment.
In 2007, approximately 794,000 cases of child maltreatment and abuse were reported in the US, translating to a maltreatment rate of 11 in every 1000 children (Administration for Children & Families, 2007). The 2007 statistics revealed that an estimated 32% of all the victims of maltreatment were children below the age of 4 years. In the same vein, 48.2% of the abuse victims were boys while 51.5% were girls.
Also, the 2007 national statistics on child maltreatment confirmed that children in the age category of birth to 1 year were victimized the most. African- American and American Indian children recorded the highest rates of victimization.
It is important to note that a decline of child maltreatment cases in the US between 2002 and 2007 should not be generalized to mean that cases of child abuse are declining globally. On the contrary, cases of child maltreatment have more than doubled in the recent past in many parts of the world, especially in areas where the masses are impoverished and face little prospects of self-improvement (Weber & Reynolds, 2004, p. 122).
Classifications of Child Maltreatment
There exist different forms of child maltreatment such as physical abuse, sexual, abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, and neglect. According to the 2007 official statistics on child maltreatment in the US, 59% of the children experienced neglect while 10.8% and 7.6% were physically and sexually abused respectively (Administration of Children & Families, 2009).
Another 4.2% of the victims were psychologically abused. It is imperative to note that these forms of child maltreatment often coexist and overlap each other (The MERCK Manuals, 2005, para. 5). For example, a child who has undergone some form of sexual harassment will also be traumatized emotionally and may end up living with such a condition for the rest of his or her life. Below, the various classifications of child maltreatment are briefly described.
Physical abuse
This form of abuse entails causing physical harm or engaging in behaviors and actions that generate a high risk of harm to the child. Many of these actions are culturally defined and include dropping, beating, biting and scalding the child. Infants and toddlers comprise the most physically abused group in children since they lack the capacity to complain or report the perpetrators (Wolfe, 1999, p. 11).
Sexual Abuse
Any action done on or with a child by an adult or comparatively older child to achieve sexual gratification constitutes sexual abuse. Forms of sexual abuse encompass vaginal, oral or anal sexual intercourse, sexual molestation without intercourse, exposure to pornographic material and forcing a minor to participate in sexual intercourse with another child
Emotional abuse
Emotional or psychological abuse involves inflicting systematic emotional harm on the child through the use of derogatory words or actions (The MERCK Manuals, 2005, para. 5).
Particular forms of psychological abuse include rebuking a minor by screaming, rebuffing by belittling the minor’s abilities and achievements, coercing and intimidating with threats of force, and exploiting or corrupting the child by encouraging deviant behavior. According to Iwaniec et al (2007, p. 208), emotionally abused children have been found to exhibit unstable levels of aggression, anger, low self-worth, anxiety, frustration and diminished levels of ego resilience.
Neglect
Neglect occurs when individuals charged with the responsibility of looking at the child’s welfare fails to provide for the child’s physical, psychological, educational, sustenance and medical needs (Wolfe, 199, p. 12).
The major difference between neglect and abuse is that the former occurs without any intentions of harming the child while the latter is designed to cause harm. Examples of neglect include failure by parents or guardians to provide sufficient food, clothing and shelter, failure to provide emotional support by showing love and affection, and failure to enroll a child in an educational institution.
How Maltreatment Affects Psychological Growth and Self-esteem of Children
According to Perry (2004, para. 7), children are most likely to achieve their fullest potential if they experience dependable, predictable, enriched and motivating interactions within an environment of attentive and nurturing relationships. In normal circumstances, a child brought up in the context of relational associations with close members of the family and significant others will learn to walk, talk, socialize, self-regulate and solve simple and complex problems as situations may allow.
Indeed, facing new challenges and situations are viewed as healthy for the child as it enables him to develop a resilient stress-response capacity. However, this is not usually the case.
Perry posits that “…the very biological gifts that make early childhood a time of great opportunity also make children very vulnerable to negative experiences: inappropriate and abusive caregiving, a lack of nurturing, chaotic and cognitively or relationally impoverished environments, unpredictable stress, persisting fear, and persisting physical threat” (para. 8). These adverse experiences have the capacity to ruin the psychological growth and self-esteem of the affected children.
All forms of child abuse have an aspect of psychological harm and loss of self-esteem (Iwaniec, et al, 2007, p. 204). Consecutive studies have revealed that the brain of a physically abused child activates a set of special adaptive responses intended to help him survive under constant physical threats (Perry, 2004, para. 11). Research has also revealed that different children develop dissimilar varieties of adaptive responses to the threat of any nature.
According to Perry, some children use hyperarousal responses such as flight or fear while others use dissociative responses such as avoidance and withdrawal. Of importance to note is that the two types of responses have direct ramifications on the victims’ psychological growth and self-esteem (Wolfe, 1999, p.28). Hyperarousal response to threat occasions the victims to display some antisocial character traits such as open defiance and aggressiveness, which eventually interferes with the psychological growth and self-esteem of the victims.
Available literature also points to the fact that these children exhibit hyper-vigilance, nervousness, panic and enhanced heart rate, conditions that don’t augur well with the victims’ psychological growth as they impair their emotional development and feelings of self-worth (Al-Qaisy, 2007, p. 1).
Some forms of child maltreatment such as acute physical and sexual abuse are known to trigger a dissociative response in victims. In this type of situation, the victims become overly embroiled in their worlds and exhibit signs of avoidance, psychological flight and total withdrawal from the outside world (Perry, 2004, para. 13).
According to Perry, the magnitude of dissociation is directly related to the intensity of the abuse. Some conditions associated with dissociative response include detachment, numbness, low heart rate, signs of distress and withdrawal into a world of fantasies. Such conditions do not augur well with the psychological growth and development of children.
Some forms of physical abuse are so severe that they end up damaging the child’s developing brain. According to Al-Qaisy (2007, p. 1), such damages can have immense ramifications on the psychological growth of the victims since they trigger cognitive delays, speech problems, and emotional difficulties. A child who is unable to communicate effectively with his or her peers due to cognitive challenges occasioned by physical abuse is likely to develop very low feelings of self-worth.
Other forms of child neglect are so severe that they end up permanently damaging the brain (Wolfe, 1999, p. 52). Such scenarios will definitely have huge consequences on the psychological growth of the child. In extreme cases of child neglect, such as when the victims are left under the care of animals, the damage to the growing brain is so severe that interventions done later in life to assist the victims are often unproductive (Perry, 2004, para. 9).
Studies reveal that physical abuse to the brain directly affects brain functions, cell formations and subsequent neurobiological development (Weber & Reynolds, 2004, p. 115). Consequently, victims of various forms of child abuse experience stunted psychological growth and low feelings of self-worth
Experts readily agree to the fact that emotional abuse is the hardest to identify or recognize since the marks are exhibited on the inside of the victim rather than the outside (PCAA, n.d., p. 1). Most emotional maltreatment occurs for nearly the same reasons that other forms of abuse occurs. However, its consequences are often serious and long-term.
Emotional abuse can be defined as hostile, unresponsive or imprudent parental behavior that causes harm to the child’s feelings of self-worth, degrades his sense or capacity of achievement, weakens his sense of belonging, inhibits healthy physical, mental and psychological development, and activates a psychological and behavioural crisis that often takes away the child’s sense of well-being (Iwanniec et al, 2007, p. 203).
This definition reveals that the child’s psychological growth and self-esteem are largely affected by different forms of emotional abuse. The most critical forms of emotional abuse include psychological and physical unavailability of the parent or significant other, unresponsive behavior, withdrawal of attention, love, comfort, and withdrawal of assurance and acceptance. Other forms of emotional abuse include overprotection, limitations of exploration and learning, and impracticable expectations (Kent & Waller, 1998, p. 395).
According to the PCAA fact sheet, “…studies conclude that psychopathologic symptoms are more likely to develop in emotionally abused children [as they] may experience a lifelong pattern of depression, estrangement, anxiety, low self-esteem, inappropriate or troubled relationships, or a lack of empathy” (p. 2).
Some forms of emotional abuse such as extreme demands on a child’s performance in school or punishing the child in the hope of reinforcing positive values have been known to inhibit the child from achieving his fullest psychological potential since he ends up basing his worldviews and thought system on gratifying the needs and requests of forces outside his control (Wolfe, 1999, p. 28).
Available literature reveals that some forms of emotional abuse such as incessant verbal abuse and the inability of the caregiver to provide love and affection to the child lead to poor psychological and emotional adjustments on the part of the abused child (PCAA, n.d., p. 2).
Consequently, the emotionally abused child will have a psychologically disturbed life as a teenager since he will find it hard to trust, participate in and realize happiness in relational and interpersonal associations, and resolve the intricate feelings that arise due to his childhood experiences (Rich, Gingerich, & Rosen, 1997, p. 15).
Many parents and guardians fail to realize and accept the fact that a developing child has his own individuality and psychological restrictions (Iwaniec et al, 2007, p. 204). As such the child is constantly subjected to the needs and aspirations of the parent or guardian at the expense of his own aspirations. This situation is known to dampen psychological growth since the child’s own independent exploration and learning is severely inhibited by the parents’ stringent ways of doing things (Sanders & Becker-Lausen, 1995, p. 318).
The child’s psychological and cognitive capacities such as decision-making ability and independence of thought remain severely inhibited by such forms of emotional maltreatment.
According to available literature, some serious forms of emotional abuse such as exhibiting negative feelings towards the child, punishing usual behaviours such as laughing or exploration, excessive criticism and failure to provide supervision and guidance have the capacity to critically compromise the child’s psychological growth and self-esteem (Iwaniec et al, 2007, p. 204).
Emotional abuse is also known to inhibit a child’s proficiency in certain key areas such as “verbal and non-verbal communication skills, patience, goal setting, and ego development in terms of basic confidence and security” (Iwaniec et al, 2007, p. 207). Such inhibitions directly affect the child’s psychological growth and feelings of self-worth.
According to Romeo (2000, p. 1), emotional maltreatment can be more hazardous to the child’s well-being than other forms of abuse as it adversely affects the child’s feelings of self-worth and self-image, resulting in overwhelming, life-long consequences. Consecutive studies have reinforced the need for the child to be raised in an emotionally stable environment as it is essential to the child’s psychological growth and development of self-image (Rich, Gingerich, & Rosen, 1997, p. 18).
When the family is emotionally stable, the child will always feel loved, cared for and wanted since the parent’s endorsement and acceptance serves to persuade the child to bond freely and develop secure attachments and relationships with each parent. Consequently, the child develops a positive self-image and self-esteem due to the loving and caring attachments and interactions he has developed with close members of the family.
According to Romeo (2000, p. 1), the child is able to comprehend that he is a valued and cherished member of the family, an ingredient that is needed in a child’s normal psychological growth.
In emotionally deficient families, the child is dispossessed of the psychological nurturing required for his normal psychological growth and development due to failure on the part of parents or close relatives to show love, care, and affection to the child. This argument serves to strengthen the premise that maltreatment affects the child’s psychological growth and self-esteem.
Consecutive studies have indicated that emotional abuse is specifically damaging to a child’s psychological growth and self-esteem (Iwaniec et al., 2007, p. 207). The disparaging nature of this form of maltreatment coupled with the fact that it intends to harm a child’s feelings of self-worth through negative criticism occasions a form of inhibited self-identity that only serves to fuel more problems and challenges in life.
Research shows that long-term psychological or emotional maltreatment results in feelings of worthlessness, mistrust, insufficiency, self-dissatisfaction, anxiety, shame and disempowerment (Kent & Waller, 1998, p. 395). According to Iwaniec (2007), many of these feelings “…determine low self-esteem, aggression, self-directed anger, and pessimism towards the future” (p. 207). Accordingly, low self-esteem inhibits proper psychological growth, the same way stunted psychological growth triggers feelings of low self-worth.
Emotionally maltreated children exhibit diverse psychological and social problems later in life. According to available literature, adolescents who may have undergone one form of maltreatment in their formative stages of life exhibits psychological deficiencies judging from the way they relate to society (Wolfe, 1999, p. 21).
On more than one occasion, the teenagers deals with psychological problems of social rejection, low self-esteem, dependency, behaviour deficits, and concentration challenges in school, obsessive compulsiveness, depression, distress and delinquent orientations (Iwaniec et al, 2007, p. 208; Rich et al, 1997, p. 24). These individuals perceive themselves as less worthy and are often besieged by interpersonal relationships. As discussed earlier, cases of child maltreatment are hard to erase from the victims’ minds even in adulthood.
Indeed, adults who were abused during their formative years often find themselves dealing with acute cases of depression, eating disorders, and low feelings of self-worth, somatisation, high anxiety levels, enhanced levels of substance and alcohol abuse, suicidal ideation, interpersonal and sexual challenges, and psychiatric symptoms (Iwaniec et al, 2007, p. 208).
Conclusion
The above discussion offers credible and overwhelming evidence that child maltreatment affects their psychological abuse and feelings of self-worth. Indeed, this paper has proved beyond any reasonable doubt that all forms of child abuse – physical, sexual, emotional and negligent – are capable of adversely affecting the psychological growth and self-esteem of children (Weber & Reynolds, 2004, p. 119). According to the statistics indicated in this paper, the problem of child abuse remains in our midst in the 21st century.
This paper has reviewed many of the psychological and social ramifications caused by child abuse, some of which have been found to have permanent impacts on the lives of victims. According to this paper, the fact that many abused children are unable to enjoy life to the fullest potential is vehemently undeniable. It is, therefore, the task of all stakeholders to devise new strategies and methodologies that will ensure cases of child abuse are sufficiently dealt with to ensure our children enjoy life to their fullest potentials.
Reference List
Al-Qaisy, L. M. (2007). “Impacts of physical and psychological abuse of children on family demographic variables.” Journal of Social Sciences. Web.
Administration for Children & Families. (2009). Child Maltreatment. Web.
Iwaniec, D., Larkin, E., & McSherry, D. (2007). “Emotionally harmful parenting.” Child Care in Practice, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 203-220.
Kent, A., & Waller, G. (1998). The impact of childhood emotional abuse: an extension of the child abuse and trauma scale.” Child Abuse and Neglect, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 393-399.
Perry, B. D. (2004). Maltreatment and the developing child: How early childhood experience shapes child and culture. Web.
Prevent Child Abuse America (PCAA). Fact sheet: Emotional child abuse. Web.
Rich, D. J., Gingerich, K. J., & Rosen, L. A. (1997) “Childhood emotional abuse and associated psychopathology in college students” Journal of College Students Psychotherapy, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 13-28.
Romeo, F. F. (2000). “The educators’ role in reporting the emotional abuse of children.” Journal of Instructional Psychology. Web.
Sanders, B., & Becker-Lausen, E. (1995). “The measurement of psychological maltreatment: Early data on the child abuse and trauma scale.” Child Abuse and Neglect, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 315-323.
The MERCK Manuals. (2005). Child Maltreatment. Web.
Weber, D. A., & Reynolds, C. R. (2004). “Clinical perspectives on neurobiological effects of psychological trauma.” Neuropsychology Review, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 115-129.
Wolfe, D. A. (1999). Child abuse: Implications for child development and psychopathology. SAGE. Web.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: a guide to taking action and generating evidence. Web.