Overview of Experiment Concept in the Context of Ethics in Psychosocial Research
One of the principles explored during the semester that informs the approach to conducting psychosocial research is the ethics of performing experiments on humans and animals. Spielman et al. (2022) point out that the basic principle underlying such research is respect for the participants, creating a safe environment, and consent for humans. In the case of animals, consent is impossible to obtain, but the researcher must make every attempt to keep animal suffering and pain to a minimum. Compliance with these factors makes the research ethical and morally correct and places the participants in an environment that is as safe as possible and not likely to harm them.
Media Example of Concept: Analysis and Summary
An example of the violation of this concept can be found in the recent Apple TV+ series Extrapolations, which deals with the effects of climate problems shortly. In particular, the second series (Figure 1) reveals the problem of the death of entire species, especially blue whales, caused by the acidification of the oceans (Burns, 2023).
Rebecca, the protagonist of the series, is an animal psychologist who researches animals to find a common language with them — future technology makes it possible to encode animal speech into human-understandable words. What violates the ethics of such research is that Rebecca attributes to the participants (the animals) the speech of her loved ones and deceased people without their consent. This, expectedly, creates an emotional connection between researcher and participant, which prevents reliable results and negatively affects the entire experiment.
In addition, Rebecca communicates with the last surviving female whale, but the animal’s suffering has not been minimized. A recording of the signatures of an already deceased male whale was used to attract her to the underwater research station, subsequently reported to the female, causing her to become seriously depressed. Thus, this media example demonstrates how dangerous and disrespectful it is for all parties to research to violate the ethics of animal and human testing.
Connection Between Concept and Media
The Intelligence of the Individual
The seventh chapter of the course explored intelligence, its facets, and its attributes; one of the most memorable concepts was Sternberg’s theory. This theory describes three types of intelligence: analytical, practical, and creative (Spielman et al., 2022). Practical intelligence responds to the ability to solve everyday problems effectively, analytical intelligence creates problem-solving and computational capabilities, and creative ones apply to finding solutions to problems, including the unexpected. An essential feature of this theory is that not all individuals have the same development of each type of intellect, with one being highly developed and the others being underdeveloped.
One of the most intriguing media examples of this concept is Flowers for Algernon by Keyes. The plot of the book is based on the tragic story of Charlie Gordon, a mentally disabled man who voluntarily decided to embark on an experiment to increase his intelligence. The book has a compelling diary style of writing that shows Charlie’s progress in his intellectual growth (Figure 2).
Both practical and analytical bits of intelligence seem to be inherently lacking in the mentally disabled Gordon, who cannot state his thoughts correctly in writing, has no common sense of what is going on around him, and cannot pass the inkblot test “I tried hard, but I still couldn’t find the pictures I only saw the ink” (Keyes, p. 1). That said, Gordon has creative intelligence, as he has found an original solution to his intellectual enhancement: attending adult night school. This media example shows one of the pathological combinations of the three types of intelligence in an individual and how they may develop further.
Memory and Its Storage
Memory storage patterns were one of the concepts explored in chapter eight of the textbook. Spielman et al. (2022) wrote about several hypotheses about how and where memory is stored. One solution, for example, was the equipotentiality hypothesis, according to which the loss of functionality in one part of the brain results in the transfer of memory storage function to another. Another concept was the arousal theory, in which memories associated with stronger emotions become stronger and vice versa. This theory is justified by the more intense release of neurotransmitters when experiencing strong emotions, which helps an individual remember more details and create a stronger memory.
The problem of memory — or, instead, its loss — is explored extensively in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind by Gondry. The plot of this film centers on the story of Joel Barish and Clementine Kruczynski, who independently decide to erase their memories of each other after a traumatic breakup (Figure 3). Although the film’s story is romantic, there is a deep philosophical and exploratory meaning about memory at its core.
Protagonist Joel’s memory is erased one by one, first the more recent and, toward the end, the oldest memories of his romantic relationship with Clementine. The film fits in well with the studied concepts: when Joel, halfway through the process, changes his mind about erasing such valuable memories, he tries to hide the memory of Clementine elsewhere. Thus, the parts of the brain storing more recent memories have already been erased, but the areas of memory that never had Clementine will not be damaged.
Therefore, the protagonist’s brain moves Clementine to the intact brain, which works according to the equipotentiality hypothesis. It is also true that some of Joel’s memories are broken quite easily, while others, in which the characters experience deeper and more vivid emotions, are more difficult to break down. The media example shows the complexity and multipotentiality of the human memory device and fits well within the framework of the concepts studied.
Experiencing Emotions
The tenth chapter of the textbook reveals the details of an individual’s emotional patterns and sexual behavior. The authors report that a stimulus is necessary for forming emotions, which are often external (Spielman et al., 2022). Of the theories of emotion emergence presented in the chapter, the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory is the most exciting and complex since it considers the presence of two reactions (cognitive and physiological) and past experiences. Thus, when a stimulus appears, the sympathetic system is activated, which leads to the formation of a response at the level of cognitive perception and physical reactions, and this response directly depends on what the individual has previously associated the stimulus with.
An excellent example of this concept is the song and video clip Wrecking Ball by the famous singer Miley Cyrus. The song’s overall message is to describe the emotions and feelings Cyrus is experiencing due to the collapse of hopes associated with breaking up with her boyfriend. The breakup of a romantic relationship, in general, is a traumatic experience, both experienced individually and transmitted as intergenerational knowledge.
This is why the lines of “A love no one could deny,” “I fell under your spell,” and “I will always want you” are so emotionally lived out by the singer in contrast to “All you ever did was wreck me,” “And now, we’re ashes on the ground” (Cyrus, 2013). Notably, the song contains memories of good experiences and anger at dashed hopes, so Cyrus’ emotions during the performance are strikingly different. However, if a relationship breakup were not socially and individually perceived as a tragedy, Cyrus might show quite different emotions, according to the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory.
In Pursuit of Happiness
Chapter 14 of the textbook details the attributes of happiness, what happiness is in general, and how an individual can achieve it. Spielman et al. (2022) offer a three-phase definition of happiness: satisfaction, meaningfulness, and feeling good about life. When discussing reasons for happiness, in addition to marital status and age, the authors also point to material possessions, as residents from more developed countries are happier. It is especially noted that material possessions can also have the opposite effect since they lead to an inability to savor and enjoy the pleasures of simpler events. In general, many life events can lead to happiness if they bring joy and are associated with positive emotions.
Happiness as a result of realized hopes is also given considerable attention in the book The Revolution of Hope: Toward a Humanized Technology by Erich Fromm. The book discusses what hope is and how its attainment can contribute to happiness in a post-industrial world. A connection to the course material is found in examining Fromm’s thoughts: Figure 5 shows a quote that questions the industry of material goods in the pursuit of happiness. Happiness can only be achieved in the short run by turning to entertainment and material goods, which will quickly become satiated and boring as needs grow. According to Fromm, happiness consists of building a sure and stable hope and moving toward it, which reflects the approach of positive psychology.
References
Burns, S. Z. (Director and Writer). (2023). 2046: Whale fall (Season 1, episode 2) [TV series episode]. In S. Z. Burns, M. Ellenberg, D. Fortenberry, G. Jacobs, & L. Springer (Executive Producers), Extrapolations. Media Res.
Cyrus, M. (2013). Miley Cyrus – wrecking ball (director’s cut) [Video]. YouTube. Web.
Fromm, E. (1968). The revolution of hope: Toward a humanized technology. Harper & Row.
Gondry, M. (2004). Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind. Focus Features.
Keyes, D. (1966). Flowers for Algernon. Harcourt, Brace & World.
Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2022). Psychology 2e. OpenStax.