Introduction
The combustion engine is one of the most important inventions of the modern era. For more than a century, it has driven machinery, industry, and transportation, influencing the world we live in today. Its operating concept has stayed the same in the last 100 years: fuel and air are injected, an explosion occurs in the cylinders, and power propels you forward (de Graffigny, 2022).
However, engineers continually improve the combustion engine, making it more efficient than ever and capable of producing the power previously only seen in supercars. Some scientists developed models in the past that were crucial in the development of the present combustion engine. Its development was greatly aided by scientists like Robert Boyle, Nicolas Joseph, Denis Papin, Nikolaus Otto, Henry Ford, and Robert Stirling.
Despite the combustion engine being the primary power source for most automobiles and numerous industrial applications today, it is under greater scrutiny due to concerns about the environment and climate change. Many manufacturers have developed hybrid and electric vehicles that produce fewer emissions and offer improved fuel efficiency, thereby reducing hazardous pollutants. As the world moves toward renewable energy sources and governments establish goals to phase out fossil fuel-powered motor vehicles, the probable future of the combustion engine could be brighter.
Numerous manufacturers have committed to stopping the production of combustion engines altogether, and some nations have established deadlines for outlawing the sale of new vehicles with combustion engines. This paper examines the development of the combustion engine, beginning with its historical origins, proceeding to contemporary trends, and concluding with a look into the future of this astonishing technology. By examining the combustion engine’s past, present, and future, it is possible to see how innovation has enhanced its usefulness, efficiency, and reduced its emissions of hazardous chemicals.
The Past
Robert Boyle‘s Fuel-Air Mixture
The 17th century saw the beginning of a scientific investigation into the characteristics and utility of gases as a workhorse. English physicist Robert Boyle carried out one of the earliest known experiments involving the combustion of a fuel-air mixture in 1672 (Tkachenko et al., 2020). He demonstrated the expansion of gases and their capacity for work using a gunpowder explosion. Denis Papin, a French physicist active in the late 17th century, expanded on this idea by utilizing a piston and cylinder to harness the energy of expanding gases.
Robert Boyle’s experiment from 1672 demonstrated that a fuel-air mixture could induce a powerful explosion, which was a crucial turning point in the development of the combustion engine. Boyle’s experiment was expanded upon by Denis Papin’s work, which showed how a piston and cylinder might utilize the energy of expanding gases to produce meaningful work (Agricole, 2020). Although gunpowder rather than a fuel-air mixture drove it, Papin’s invention was a forerunner of the combustion engine.
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot’s Combustion Engine
Nonetheless, Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot’s construction of the first functional combustion engine in 1769 was made possible by Papin’s work. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot created the first workable combustion engine in 1769 (Tkachenko et al., 2020). His steam-powered carriage, which had a speed of barely 2.5 miles per hour, was made to carry artillery but was slow and heavy. His machine, designed to transport artillery for the French military, was the first to utilize a piston and cylinder to convert the energy of steam into productive activity. Cugnot’s vehicle, although it could have been faster and clumsier, demonstrated how the combustion engine could be utilized for transportation and other purposes.
Robert Stirling‘s Engine
In the early 19th century, Scottish engineer Robert Stirling developed the Stirling engine, marking a considerable breakthrough in the field of combustion engines. His engine did not need a boiler because it drove a piston with hot air, making it more effective than a steam engine. A range of applications was suitable for the Stirling engine since it was cleaner and quieter than other engines at the time (Abdulhamid O’g’li, 2022). The Stirling engine was never widely used, however, due to the intricacy of its design and the availability of more affordable substitutes.
Nikolaus Otto‘s Four-Stroke Combustion Engine
In the mid-19th century, German engineer Nikolaus Otto developed the first four-stroke combustion engine. The engine was more efficient and dependable than earlier models because it employed a fuel-air mixture ignited by a spark plug. Otto’s engine would significantly influence the development of the modern gasoline engine, which remains a common feature in cars today.
The four-stroke engine represented a significant advance, demonstrating that internal combustion could power engines rather than relying on external heat sources, such as steam (Senecal & Leach, 2021). This increased the portability and adaptability of combustion engines, opening the door to their extensive use in transportation and other fields. Many engineers and innovators built on Otto’s work during the ensuing decades, creating engines for boats, planes, and other vehicles.
Rudolf Diesel‘s Engine
The creation of the diesel engine by Rudolf Diesel was another significant advancement in combustion engines. This engine was more effective than the Otto engine because it ignited the fuel using a high-pressure compression mechanism (Siddique, 2020). First employed for fixed purposes, such as power generation, the diesel engine was later modified for mobility.
Diesel engines gained popularity in commercial trucks and buses due to their durability and high fuel efficiency. Diesel engines are commonly used in transportation, particularly in heavy-duty applications such as long-haul shipping. The diesel engine was a significant advancement, as it demonstrated the potential for employing compression to ignite the fuel, thereby increasing the efficiency and adaptability of engines.
Henry Ford‘s Gasoline Engine
Henry Ford unveiled the Model T, the first mass-produced car, in 1908. A four-cylinder gasoline engine with 20 horsepower propelled the Model T. With a starting price of $825, it was reasonably priced and available to the general public (Lamar, 2022). The Model T changed everything, bringing in the age of the vehicle and fundamentally altering civilization. The development of the automotive industry was facilitated by Ford’s adoption of mass production techniques, which made the combustion engine affordable and widely accessible.
Combustion engines played a crucial role in powering military vehicles and aircraft during World War II. Aguilar et al. (2020) suggest that the development of turbocharging and supercharging technology made engines more effective, allowing for higher and quicker flight than ever before. Synthetic fuels were created during the war and used to power military vehicles when gasoline supplies were scarce (Johnstone et al., 2020). With the combustion engine powering everything from cars and trucks to boats and airplanes, contemporary society has come to rely heavily on it.
The Present
Engine Size
Since its invention, the combustion engine has seen substantial development. Although the engine’s fundamental workings remain unchanged, technological advancements have yielded substantial improvements in efficiency, power output, and emissions. Larger engines were considered more powerful and desirable in the early days of the internal combustion engine. Downsizing the engine while keeping or even enhancing its performance has become more prevalent in recent years. Technology advancements, particularly in direct fuel injection, variable valve timing and lift, and turbocharging, have made this change possible.
Engine Performance
Engines may run more efficiently and produce greater power due to direct fuel injection, which enables more precise control over the fuel-air mixture. Engine performance can be improved using variable valve timing and lift, which enables varied valve timings and lift profiles in response to engine load and speed (Tripathy et al., 2020). By introducing more air into the engine and raising the combustion pressure and the amount of fuel that can be burned, turbocharging can also boost the power output of a smaller engine (Decher, 2022). This trend toward downsizing has been particularly noticeable in the automotive industry, where smaller engines are increasingly being employed in favor of larger ones, yet can still deliver the same amount of power and torque. As a result, fuel efficiency has increased, and emissions have decreased, which is crucial in the modern world where air pollution and climate change are vital problems.
Hybrid Engines
Hybridization has been a significant advancement in the development of the combustion engine. Hybrid engines enable increased fuel efficiency and lower pollution by combining a conventional combustion engine with an electric motor (Kumar et al., 2021). To reduce the strain on the combustion engine, the electric motor can be used to power the vehicle at low speeds and during acceleration. The automotive sector has achieved remarkable success with hybridization, as manufacturers have significantly increased fuel efficiency without compromising performance.
Hybridization can take many forms, ranging from mild hybrids that support the combustion engine with a modest electric motor to full hybrids that travel short distances solely on electricity. Downsizing and hybridization can be coupled to produce even more effective and potent engines (Elkelawy et al., 2022). For instance, a hybrid powertrain that uses a smaller combustion engine and an electric motor can deliver the same amount of power as a larger engine while using less gasoline. The car sector is not the only one utilizing this technology. Its utilization is being investigated in other sectors, including aviation and the maritime industry, to increase efficiency and lower pollution.
Alternative Fuel Engines
The use of alternative fuels for internal combustion engines has garnered increased attention in recent years. While gasoline and diesel have long dominated the fuels used in internal combustion engines, environmental concerns have spurred the development of novel fuels, including biofuels and synthetic fuels (Leach et al., 2020). Biofuels can reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants because they are produced using renewable resources such as corn, sugarcane, or algae (Datta et al., 2019). In contrast, synthetic fuels have a significantly smaller carbon footprint than conventional fuels, despite being derived from non-renewable resources such as coal or natural gas.
Biofuels can be used as a solo fuel in specific engines or combined with gasoline or diesel. They are becoming increasingly common in the transportation industry, particularly when stringent emissions regulations are implemented (Datta et al., 2019). Although still in their infancy, synthetic fuels have the potential to play a vital role in the evolution of combustion engines, as they can be used in current engines without requiring modification. Other alternative fuels, such as hydrogen and propane, are also being investigated for use in combustion engines, biofuels, and synthetic fuels. Factors such as cost and infrastructure currently hinder the widespread adoption of these fuels, although they have the potential to significantly reduce emissions and increase efficiency.
Finally, modifications to laws and customer preferences have also influenced the development of the combustion engine. Governments have enacted stringent emissions restrictions in many parts of the world, requiring automakers to lessen the number of pollutants their vehicles create (Kottasová, 2023). This has led to a renewed emphasis on improving the efficiency of the combustion engine and developing alternative fuels. Consumer tastes have also shifted in favor of fuel-efficient automobiles, particularly in urban areas where traffic congestion and air pollution are significant concerns.
The Future
Renewable Energy
As the global focus shifts to renewable energy and governments set targets to eliminate fossil fuel-powered vehicles, the future of the combustion engine appears uncertain. Many automakers have pledged to cease production of combustion engines entirely, while several countries have set timelines to ban the sale of new vehicles powered by them. (Kottasová, 2023). The combustion engine, however, may be significantly impacted by developments in other energy sources, such as electric vehicles (EVs) and hydrogen fuel cell technology.
Electric Vehicles
EV batteries are now substantially less expensive and have a far greater range. Also, the infrastructure for charging EVs is improving, making them a viable option for daily use. The cost of EVs is anticipated to match that of conventional combustion engine vehicles by 2024, with EV sales expected to overtake those of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles by 2050 (BloombergNEF, 2022).
Without a doubt, the widespread adoption of EVs will have a significant impact on the combustion engine. EVs will compete well with internal combustion engines as they improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness. This change will significantly impact the oil sector, as it will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and lower demand for fossil fuels (Li et al., 2020).
The oil sector will be compelled to adapt as consumer demand for fossil fuels declines, potentially leading to a decline in oil prices. Additionally, the shift to EVs will boost the economy by creating new jobs in the production and maintenance of electric vehicles. To ensure that people are prepared for the new job opportunities that arise from this transition in the labor market, a substantial investment will be needed in retraining and education.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Hydrogen fuel cell technology is an additional intriguing alternative power source for machinery and industrial equipment. Hydrogen and oxygen are combined in hydrogen fuel cells to create energy, with water being the sole byproduct. They become a clean and effective source of energy as a result.
Hydrogen fuel-cell technology has advanced significantly recently, with fuel-cell cars such as the Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo now on the market (Aminudin et al., 2023). The use of hydrogen fuel cells has the potential to revolutionize both industrial and transportation machinery. Fuel cell vehicles are more viable for long-distance driving than electric vehicles because of their excellent range and faster refueling times. Hydrogen fuel cell technology can power buses, trains, and other large vehicles, as well as business tools like generators and forklifts.
Conclusion
Modern industry and transportation development have been fueled by the significant evolution of the combustion engine since its invention. Even while the engine makes a substantial contribution, pressure from environmental and climate change concerns is growing. The environmental impact of combustion engines has been mitigated through advancements in alternative technologies, including hybrid and electric vehicles, as well as improvements in engine technology. The future of combustion engines is uncertain, but it will likely depend on adopting EVs and hydrogen cells. The fate of the combustion engine ultimately depends on its ability to adapt and satisfy evolving societal demands while minimizing its environmental impact.
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