Full-Time Versus Part-Time Workers at Marriott International Hong Kong

Abstract

Part-time employment has been increasing quickly for the last two decades, particularly in the hospitality sector. Many researchers have argued that part-time employment has many benefits for both organizations and workers. However, the hospitality industry in most countries has experienced a comparatively high level of staff turnover, which has resulted in increased costs for businesses.

The most significant factor contributing to this turnover rate is the level of organizational commitment among employees of these organizations. This paper uses data from the study of Marriott International, a five-star hotel in Hong Kong, to study the level of commitment among part-time and full-time employees in the hospitality industry. The study established that part-time employees were relatively less satisfied than full-time employees and had lower levels of commitment. The case study used numerous data collection and analysis methods, including questionnaires, interviews, and a three-dimensional Organizational Commitment Scale. The study results show that a lower level of commitment among part-time workers is the reason for increased staff turnover in the hospitality industry.

Introduction

There are numerous definitions relating to work commitment. This is because many studies have established relations between work commitment to attitude and behaviors in the places of work (Stredwick, 2005, p. 3). According to Meyer and Allen (1997) the basis for studying work commitment is related to workers behavior and performance efficiency, attitudinal/effective and perception construct for instance job satisfaction, attribute and roles of an employee’s job and individual traits of an employee (Meyer and Allen, 1997, p. 6). Bateman and Strasser (1984) assert that work commitment is multi-dimensional in nature encompassing workers loyalty, their willingness to put more effort on behalf of the organization, sticking to values of the organization and desire to remain in the organization. They also identified commitment related attitudes and behaviors.

Work commitment is nowadays considered as one of the most important and controversial element in human resource management (Riley, 2000, p. 5). According to Stredwick (2005) the subject of work commitment is mostly linked to work values, work motivation and work involvement. The problem of work commitment in relation to full-time and part-time working has not been fully explored and therefore requires detailed studying and analysis. This study aims at bridging this gap by adding some more significant information to the subject.

The general and basic information on the problem of work commitment as a part of job involvement and work effectiveness is given in the study by Miller et al. (2002). The authors provide the aspects of general management theory and key principles to hospitality organizations (Miller et al., 2002, p.4). The thorough analysis of the problem requires the studying of contemporary theories on the question. Huczynski and Buchanan (2007, pp. 3-5) offer a comprehensive analysis of modern theories on central human resources activities. The work by Bratton and Gold (2007, p.13) gives views on a new discussion on workplace wellness and ethics in human resources management.

The study of the problem of the level of work commitment between full-time and part-time employees covers a wide range of additional aspects. As a result, Tesone (2008) illustrates a number of theories on the subject in his work. “When employees have a high degree of consensus and commitment to the firm’s objectives, and as a collective, are capable of learning and growing them; the firm may be more agile and adaptable to the changes it faces during its lifecycle” (Tesone, 2008, p.8). Moreover, “internal commitment occurs when employees are committed to a particular project, person or program for their individual reasons or motivations” (Tesone, 2008, p. 283). To define the problem more specifically, Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (2003) among the range of issues also focus on the questions of ethics, leadership and work commitment of part-time and full-time employees in the employment relations. They assert that part-time work is becoming more popular despite of its controversial work arrangements (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2003, p. 167).

Statement of the Problem

Casual employment has been increasing very fast for the last two decades, particularly in the service sector such as hospitality. Many researchers have argued that there are many benefits associated with part-time employment for both organizations and workers. However, hospitality industry in most countries has experienced comparatively high level of staff turnover that has resulted to increased costs for businesses. The most significant factor contributing to this turnover rate is the level of organizational commitment among employees of these organizations. This paper explores work commitment and satisfaction among the part-time and full-time employees at Marriott International-a five star hotel in Hong Kong. The study will use a number of data collection and analysis methods to achieve its objectives. These techniques used include use of questionnaires, interviews, and three-dimensional Organizational Commitment Scale.

The Aim and Objective of the Study

The main aim of the paper is to objectively study, analyze and compare the work commitment level between full-time workers and part-time workers within the Marriott Hotels based in Hong Kong.

The following objectives were determined to achieve the aim of the paper:

• To critically appraise the theories relating to work commitment and factors affecting the level of commitment within the hotel industry.
• To evaluate how these factors are affecting the level of commitment within the workplace.
• To analyze and compare the work commitment level between full-time and part-time workers.

Hypotheses

• H1: Work Status affects the level of employees’ commitment in an organization.
• H2: Job motivation and satisfaction have a positive impact on organizational commitment.
• H3: Organizational commitment has positive impact on job performance.

Literature Review

According to Bratton and Gold (2007), organizational commitment is relative to the worker’s attachment or participation in the organization in which he/she is employed. Organizational commitment is very significant since it determines whether an employee is likely to leave his/her job or improve performance (Bratton and Gold, 2007, p. 13). There have been numerous studies related to the concept of organizational commitment. Mowday et al. (1979) emphasized on the concept referred to as attitudinal commitment and behavioural commitment. Another concept was introduced by Meyer and Allen (1991). This is the most recognized concept of organizational commitment. In this approach, organizational commitment has three multi-dimensional components namely effective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment (Mowday et al., 1979, p.8).

Effective commitment relates to emotional attachment and is normally linked to favorable working environment and relationship with the other employees. Normative commitment on the other hand relates to the feeling of obligation. This type of commitment is normally associated with employees who feel they owe the organization for being given a job when they needed it most. Lastly, continuance commitment relates to terms of employment such job contracts. In this case leaving the current job may be very costly or troublesome (Meyer and Allen, 1991, p.8).

Organizational commitment is a very vital component of measuring organizational effectiveness (Mullins, 2001, p. 36). Because of its multi-dimensional construct, organizational commitment has the capability of predicting organizational results such as performance, proceeds, cases of absenteeism, employees’ status, and organizational goals (Bratton and Gold, 2007, p. 13).

The performance/ turnover of workers owing to the organizational environment have become a major headache to many heads of organizations in general, and human resource managers in particular (Freund and Carmeli, 2003, p.1). This problem is mostly attributed to lack of stability and job security for one of the most important resources in the organization-employees (Freund and Carmeli, 2003, p. 2). Most organizations have begun to foster the workers’ feeling of commitment to their work/occupation/career, organization and its values and ambitions, and strong job ethics (Freund and Carmeli, 2003, p.3).

Models of Work Commitment

The soaring rate of rotation that is typical of the modern organizational environment over the recent years has called for the need to tackle challenges and complications resulting from the turnover rate. To address the impasse related with this objective, organizational efforts have progressed in two directions. At the micro-level, organizations regard workers commitment to a specific occupation. Organizational focus at the micro-level is on the modification of the human resource structure to suit the current needs to achieve the operational goals. To create a balance between organizational goals and workers needs, both psychological contract and dynamic viewpoint of trade and stability are required to make sure that the needs of all the parties are taken care of.

Freund and Carmeli (2003) came up with a model for five general forms of work commitment. According to this model there are five major commitments which reciprocate each other. These are career commitment, affirmative work ethic, occupational commitment, and organizational commitment (both continuance and effective commitment). The above five commitments are further classified into two major groups. The first category focuses on commitments that affect work attitudes with no reference to the organization where employees work. This includes work ethics, career commitment and occupational commitment. The second category is influenced by the organization in which employees work. They include continuance and effective organizational commitment.

In spite of the great significance attributed to the relationships between positions at work and the results of work, there are a few researches that have explored the link between multiple commitments and work results. Most of these studies deal with solitary variable for instance organizational commitment or satisfaction, and its relation to the organizational results (Bayazit and Mannix, 2003, p. 20). One of the initial models based on the idea of multiple commitments and the relationships between them was developed by Morrow (1983). Morrow’s model covered five commitments that influence the organizational outcomes and arranged them in a logical order.

According to Morrow, different forms of commitment covered in the model have reciprocal influence among themselves and this result into a circular structure based on the affirmative work ethic being linked to occupational commitment and continuance commitment. Occupational commitment is related to effective commitment and continuance commitment. As a result, continuance commitment is connected to effective commitment, and both have impact on job involvement to complete the circle (Bayazit and Mannix, 2003, p. 21).

Further studies on the above model have established that different forms of commitments have shared commitment among themselves (Morrow, 1993, p.5). The most fundamental form of commitment with the minimal ability for influence and change is the affirmative work ethic (Furnham, 1990, p. 22). This form of commitment, with which the employee is hired into the organization, will remain part of him in his career life with only small changes and with no connection to different organizations the employee has worked for. Nonetheless, affirmative work ethics have an impact on other forms of commitment such as continuance commitment (Furnham, 1990, p. 23). Affirmative work ethics is associated with occupational commitment because individuals have diverse perception of work and higher morals will influence an individual’s persistence in a given job or career. Additionally, affirmative work ethics influences continuance commitment because a number of relations received by an employee with affirmative work ethics are as a result of the fact that he has a working place (Bayazit and Mannix, 2003, p. 22).

According to Morrow’s model, job involvement is influenced by continuance commitment and effective commitment. Job involvement will be influenced by continuance commitment on the assumption that satisfactory relation will persuade the employees to invest more in his job (Furnham, 1990, p. 25). Effective commitment will influence job involvement given the conviction in the organizational objectives and identification with the values of the organization will push the employee to invest more in their job and therefore will increase employee participation (Furnham, 1990, p. 24-25).

Randall and Cote (1991) were the first to investigate Morrow’s model. They also focused on the five forms of commitment but used a different model structure. According to their study the most fundamental, most lasting commitment and the one with the least ability to change is the affirmative work ethic. Therefore, in this model affirmative work ethic is still fundamental but takes a new direction. According Randall and Cote’s model, affirmative work ethic will influence job involvement as along as it is so fundamental and entrenched in the employee that will make him to devote to his job and therefore will facilitate high job involvement (Randall and Cote, 1991, pp. 194).

Job involvement on the other hand will impact the remaining three commitments (effective, continuance and occupational commitment). Affirmative work ethic is a long-term and comparatively steady characteristic whereas the above three commitments are unstable and can change comparatively faster. Job involvement is a characteristic that highly influenced by affirmative work ethics in such a manner that high commitment to work will increase a person’s job commitment.

The main difference between Randall and Cote’s model and Morrow’s model is that in the former, job involvement tends to be a reconciliatory variable for the above mentioned three forms of commitment. Job involvement in Randall and Cote’s model is not computed by straightforwardly influencing yields, but by developing a connection and establishing the correct path among other commitment. That is to say, job involvement plays a significant part in Randall and Cote’s model, but in a different way as Morrow’s model, where job involvement is straightforwardly connected to the organizational results (Bayazit and Mannix, 2003, p. 21).

A third system of reciprocal influence between the five different forms of commitment was introduced by Cohen (1999) in his model. Cohen’s model also used affirmative work ethics as the basic variable in his model. Affirmative work ethics in this case is the only variable that can hardly be changed in the model (Furnham, 1990, p. 22). Affirmative work ethic is the fundamental commitment which influences other forms of commitment of any employee, but with no straightforward relation to the organizational outcome or commitment. This is because it takes a very long period of time to change this variable. Similar to the perception of Randall and Cote’s model, in this model, affirmative work ethics also can only influence job involvement and not other variables. Nonetheless, this where the similarity between these models ends; from here henceforth Cohen introduces a completely different system of context regarding the relations between different forms of commitment (Cohen, 1999, p. 286).

According to Cohen’s model, job involvement will influence occupational, effective and continuance commitments similar to Randall and Cote’s model. However, unlike the other two models, occupational commitment also influences continuance commitment and effective commitment in this model (Cohen, 2000, p. 388). The two forms of commitments are the most subjected and have the highest ability to change in an employee. This model uses the same five fundamental commitments described by Morrow but merges them in such a manner that they become more suitable for Randall and Cote’s model than Morrow’s model (Cohen, 1999, p. 287).

Job Satisfaction and Work Commitment

Schwepker (2001) defines job satisfaction as “the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating one’s values”. At the same time, he defined job dissatisfaction as “the unpleasant emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as frustrating or blocking the attainment of one’s values”. Herzberb et al. (1959) came up with famous theory of job satisfaction. The two-factor theory posits that workers have primarily two kinds of needs namely motivation and hygiene. Hygiene factors are those necessities that can be satisfied by particular conditions such as regulation, interpersonal relations, working conditions, remunerations among others. The theory suggests that job dissatisfaction normally arise in cases where hygienic factors do not exist. On the contrary, the supply of hygiene needs does not necessarily translate to full satisfaction. It’s only the level of dissatisfaction that can be minimized (Furnham et al., 2002, p. 1326).

According to the scale used by Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), job satisfaction is regarded as an attitude and there are three elements of workers’ attitudes of job satisfaction. These are categorized as extrinsic, intrinsic, and overall corroboration factors. Intrinsic factors include ability utilization, independence, ethical values, responsibility, security, ingenuity, societal services, societal status, and diversity. On the other hand, extrinsic factors include expansion, organizational policy, compensation, acknowledgement, and supervision of human capital (Schwepker, 2001, p. 40).

Most researchers have treated work commitment and job satisfaction as an independent variable. According to these researchers, work commitment and job satisfaction can be viewed in different angles (Jernigan et al., 2002, p.567). Job satisfaction is a form of reaction to a particular job or work-related subject; whereas commitment is more of a universal response. For that reason, commitment should be more consistent compared to job satisfaction in an organization (Feinstein and Vondrasek, 2001, p. 6). In their study of hotel employees, Feinstein and Vondrasek (2001) established that the level of satisfaction predicts organizational commitment. Another study conducted by Gaertner (1999, p.490) on the determinants of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, established that job satisfaction is the basis of organizational commitment.

Jernigan et al. (2002, p.567) explored the role that particular determinants of job satisfaction plays in predicting different types of commitment in the organization. They established that effective commitment differed with individual’s satisfaction within facets of the work context. In such cases, the role of the management can not be overlooked because they are the key people at the highest level responsible for moving the organization ahead. A research conducted by Maxwell and Steele (2008) among hotel managers identified the principle issue that enhances the level of commitment in organizations. These include high and equitable remuneration, employers’ interest on their workers, high level of cooperation in the organization, and opportunities to take part in social activities (Maxwell and Steele, 2008, p. 363).

According to Maxwell and Steele (2008, p.370) payment strategy and recognition are extrinsic job satisfaction variables; whereas workers interest in terms of autonomy, security, teamwork and trust in terms of moral values, and opportunities to take part in social activities are intrinsic job satisfaction variables. On the other hand, Bateman and Strasser (1984) posit that organizational commitment can sometimes be an independent variable with job satisfaction as the resultant variable (Bateman and Strasser, 1984, p. 96). They argued that employees who are highly committed to an organization may experience high level of satisfaction in their work. According to Lau and Chong (2002) highly committed employees would endeavour to meet organization’s goals and interest. This kind of attitude will influence budgetary planning and goals of the managers. Thus, satisfaction is proposed as an outcome instead of an antecedent. In general, the theory suggests that job satisfaction is a precursor of organizational commitment where the aspect of job satisfaction has an imperative impact on the dimension of organizational commitment (Lau and Chong, 2002, p. 184).

In U.S., McClurg (1999) carried out an investigation on whether patterns of organizational commitment existing in the normal work settings are applicable in the temporary-help service sector. She recommended that offering support to part-time workers in non-monitory manner is the most effective way of enhancing organizational commitment. She also noted that part-time employees should be considered as homogeneous group since there are numerous reasons for hiring them and treating them differently may affect their commitment to work. However, McClurg did not test this in her research.

Lowry et al. (2002) established that part-time employees encounter varying level of work commitment and job satisfaction in relation to their perception of work context aspects, for instance, training, promotion, scheduling of work, organizational practices and interpersonal relationships. They asserted that satisfaction with employment security have less effect or work commitment than satisfaction with quality of life. Brotherton (2003) established that, in the perspective of nurturing commitment and innovation among hotel workers, the most significant thing is the clarity of employment contract, rather than whether or not the contract offers a level of permanency or job security to the workers. He also found out that, in a number of situations, where the job contract is as specific as possible regarding job requirements, part-timers performed better than full-timers whose psychological contract entailed disseminate expectation, for instance, corporate citizenship.

Organizational commitment is both beneficial to employers and employees (Clarke and Chen, 2007). For individual employees, work commitment signifies a positive relationship with the organization and attaches more meaning to life; whereas, for employers, committed workers have the likelihood of enhancing organizational performance, reduce turnover and cases of absenteeism (Chon, Sung and Yu 1999, p. 12). Organizational commitment has also been associated with efficiency, productivity, creativity and innovativeness among employees (Lashley and Lee-Ross, 2003, p. 16).

Allen and Meyer (1990, p. 2) are among the authors who linked work commitment and staff turnover. According the two authors, workers who are highly committed are less likely to quit the organization. They relate turnover intention to effective commitment and to a slighter degree, normative commitment. The link between continuous commitment and staff turnover intention is not consistent across studies (Chon, Sung and Yu 1999, p. 13). The same case is true regarding measurement of actual turnover taking into consideration effective and normative commitment and not continuance commitment (Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, 2003, p. 18).

There are numerous approaches that have been developed to assess organizational commitment (Mullins, 2007, p. 2). The most widely accepted approach is the use of Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS) developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). OCS measures the three forms of commitment (Effective, Continuance and Normative commitment). OCS has been widely used in a broad range of samples and situations and has been significantly reviewed by numerous researchers (Allen and Meyer, 1996, p.253).

Job Satisfaction and Work Commitment in the Hospitality Industry

A study conducted by Aksu and Aktas (2005) regarding job satisfaction of managers in a five star hotel established that improved working conditions can enhance job satisfaction. Improved working conditions in this case encompassed work promotions, boosting Morales of employees, financial rewards, fringe benefits and compensation, and realistic working hours. Lam et al. (2003) suggested in their study that training and development can assist in enhancing job satisfaction in the service industry. The study also found out that a manager in the hotel industry plays a significant role in work commitment and satisfaction. The study established that seniors or mentors in the hospitality industry are likely to encourage their juniors or the newcomers, thus influence their job satisfaction and behavioral intent (Lam et al., 2003).

Jernigan et al. (2002) studied the relationship between workers service orientation and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and worker’s intention of quitting his/her job. The study covered restaurant workers and the results were as follows: consumer emphasis of service of employees are negatively correlated with job satisfaction but positively correlated with organizational commitment; support from the organization is positively correlated with job satisfaction; organizational commitment is negatively correlated with workers intention to quit his/her job (Jernigan et al., 2002, p. 171-172).

Karatepe et al. (2006) conducted a study on the effects of personal characteristics such as competiveness, endeavor, and individual efficacy on frontline worker’s performance and job satisfaction. They suggested that unless the executive is not committed to service delivery, they should promote their career instead of job only and attract competitive and individual efficacious staff. In addition, they should promote sound environment to reduce conflicts takes place as a result of unhealthy competition. Another study conducted by Tapeci and Bartlett (2002) among the frontline staff found out that workers satisfaction is based on personal values in addition to organizational factors. As a result, satisfied workers are more likely to satisfy the clients and eventually help the organization to move forward.

Gonzalez and Garazo (2006, p. 27) recommends the hotel leadership to put more focus on frontline staff to rouse job satisfaction and organizational commitment/citizenship. This is because service communicative management services encounter practices promotes organizational commitment and enhances job satisfaction among employees. Lastly, a research conducted by Ghiseli et al. (2001) on food service workers and their managers, found out that remuneration, fringe benefits, working hours, welfare services and family influences job satisfaction in the hotel industry. The study also established that low ranking officers were more likely to quit than the high ranking employees.

Work Values and Commitment

There has been a growing interest in the study of human values and work values over the recent years. Most of these studies have paid a lot emphasis on typology and quantification of values to its dynamic priorities, for instance, stability and change; and the relations between values and attitudes, objectives and characters (Redman and Wilkinson, 2001, p. 20). Some studies have tried to distinguish values from attitudes while others have tried to relate them. According to Elizur et al. (1991) work values are defined as a conglomeration of attitudes and opinions with which employees can assess their jobs and work surrounding. Hertberg et al. (1959) regarded work values as a representation of motivational aspects. On the other hand, Furnham (2002) considered work values as representing affirmative work ethics.

A number of studies have regarded values and work values particularly as a significant variable in describing organizational commitment (Furnham, 2002, p.1323). According to Feinstein and Vondrasek (2001) commitment is an expression of one’s own self, and mirrors standard values that are fundamental to one’s existence as a person. Elizur et al. (1991) established a restrained relationship between work values and organizational commitment. Miller et al. (2002) studied the relationship between work values and organizational commitment of workers in the hospitality industry. They established that intrinsic work values were closely more related to organizational commitment in comparison to extrinsic work values.

Work Commitment Among Full-Time and Part-Time Employees

In our contemporary society employment relationships has remarkably changed. Workers’ job status at the present time has developed into two types; standard work status (permanent or full-time) and the non-standard work status (temporary, contractual or part-time). Most organizations have turned to non-standard work status to provide high level of scheduling flexibility, meet the unexpected demand more efficiently, and to cut down cost of wages and salaries. In addition, the number of part-time employees is the highest in the service industry (Conway and Briner, 2002, p. 280).

In spite of the growing significance of this category of workers in different sectors of the economy, there are comparatively few researches on the part-time employment. Part-time employees are known to differ in numbers from full-time workers, but the degree in which their work attitudes differ is less apparent (Krausz, Sagie and Bidermann, 2000, p. 2). Most studies on part-time and full-time employees have concentrated on the difference in attitudes and behaviors of these two categories of workers. However, there are a number of studies that have touched on work status, work commitment and job satisfaction. Other studies have even considered further relationships, for example, work status and organizational environment.

Studies evaluating job satisfaction across full-time and part-time workers exhibit contradicting results. Studies have found that part-time workers are more, less and equally satisfied with their works than full-time workers (Krausz, Sagie and Bidermann, 2000; Sinclair et al., 1999). Correspondingly, there have also been contradicting results from comparisons of commitment levels between the two set of employees. These studies have also found that part-time workers are more, less and equally committed to their work than full-time workers (Martin & Hafer, 1995; Sinclair et al., 1999; Krausz, Sagie and Bidermann, 2000). Most researchers who have attempted to explain these disparities have mostly applied the theories of partial inclusion and frame of reference (Krausz, Sagie and Bidermann, 2000, p. 3).

According to the theory of partial inclusion, part-time workers are argued to be partially included since they spend fewer hours in the workplace and are more involved in organizational operations than full-time workers (Conway and Briner, 2002, p. 283). In the case of frame theory, part-time workers are believed to have diverse frame of reference from that of full-time employees (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p.282) given that the group and aspects of work environment chosen to analyze the two job categories always differ. For instance, some studies have found out that part-time employees put more emphasis on working hour’s flexibility than full-time workers (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p. 282-283).

The two theories have also been used paradoxically in many ways to explain the difference between the two types of work status. For example, researchers have used the feeling of inclusivity to explain higher levels of job satisfaction. This is because the theories of partial inclusion and frame of reference can be manipulated to describe any experiential results since they are normally used to post rationalize results (Conway and Briner, 2002, p. 282). However, none of these theories have been tried experimentally and since they are scantily described, it is not apparent how they may be put into practice (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p.283).

A number of studies have used psychological contract theory as a descriptive framework for the employment relationship and for explaining workers attitudes and behaviors (Sinclair et al., 1999, p. 340). This theory has been used in many ways to describe employment relationship, but the main construct within this theory is organizational results achieved through psychological contract achievement or contravention. Psychological contract realization has been found to be positively correlated to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance. It is also found to be negatively correlated to intention to quit the organization (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p.284). Therefore, psychological contract is a very reasonable approach in understanding attitudes and behaviors of workers in different types of employment and recently it was established that it is useful in understanding contingent employees (Sinclair et al., 1999, p. 341).

At the organizational level part-time employees have been found to be treated differently from full-time employees in terms of task performed, remuneration, work diversity, independence, and opportunities to grow (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p.287). For instance, there are enough evidence that show that part-time employees are unlikely to be given the same promotion and training opportunities in the same organization (Lam et al., 2003, p. 162). Part-time employees are normally hired when the organization is experiencing busy period and are expected to perform fairly repetitive tasks during this periods. As a result organizations usually perceive their contribution to be dissimilar from those of full timers in terms of, for instance, effort and flexibility. If part timers perceive that they are being treated differently in terms of incentives they get and contributions they offer, this is likely to influence their perception of psychological contract (Fieldman and Doerpinghaus, 1992, p.289).

At personal level, part timers have different professional orientation, so they may make a meaningful trade-off of types of compensation with organization to have greater flexibility and extra time to attend to other commitments (Lam et al., 2003, p. 164). Generally, many researchers have predicted that full-timers have soaring expectation than part-timers regarding what they are supposed to get from the organization (Sinclair et al., 1999, p. 345). At interpersonal level, part-time employees in most cases are treated differently or subjected to different assumptions by the leadership and fellow employees. Studies have established that part-time employees are mostly managed under the assumptions of theory X and stereotypes. Different treatment across work status can be seen by part-timers as interactional prejudice, thus can lead to perception of unfairness or violation (Morrison and Robinson, 1997, p. 227).

Methodology

Introduction

This chapter details the research methodologies employed in this study. In so doing, the research question is presented and the research objectives and philosophy are discussed. In order to investigate the work commitment among full-time versus part-time workers at Marriott International Hong Kong, this study will adopt a theory development and application designs (Saunders et al, 2007). The research methods used “both primary and secondary” are described in detail, and selection and use of these methods are justified. Data collection techniques, as well as sample selection and data analysis are discussed. In addition, pertinent issues and considerations (including limitations) relating to this specific research are presented and discussed. The research methodology is set out clearly in this chapter so that the same approach can be adopted by other researchers in the future. Therefore, this study will proceed from a research philosophy, research approach, applications strategy, research plan, data collection approaches and verifications of the outcomes.

Research Philosophy

For this part, choosing a philosophy of research design is the choice between the positivist and the social constructionist (Easterby, 2008, p.147). The positivist view shows that social worlds exist externally, and its properties are supposed to be measured objectively, rather than being inferred subjectively through feelings, intuition, or reflection. The basic beliefs for positivist view are that the observer is independent, and science is free of value. The researchers should concentrate on facts, look for causality and basic laws, reduce phenomenon to simplest elements, and form hypotheses and test them. Preferred methods for positivism consist of making concepts operational and taking large samples. While on the other hand, social constructionism holds the view that reality is subjective and it is socially constructed and given meaning by people. It is best explored through a clear focus on the ways that people make sense of the world via language (Saunders, 2009, p.321).

The basic beliefs for social constructionism are that the observer is part of what is observed and science is driven by human interest. The researchers should concentrate on meaning, look for understanding for what really happened and develop ideas with regard to the data. Preferred methods for social constructionism include using different approaches to establish different views of phenomenon and small samples evaluated in depth or over time. (Saunders, 2009, p.322) For the case of work commitment among full-time versus part-time workers at Marriott International Hong Kong, the philosophy of social constructionism would be used for carrying out the research. Because it tends to produce qualitative data, and the data are subjective since the gathering process would also be subjective due to the involvement of the researcher. Furthermore, the location is natural as it takes place in a commercial organization rather than in the laboratory. The reliability is low (would be countered by triangulation) and the validity is high.

Research Approach

This study will entail a distinct case study at Marriott International Hotel in Hong Kong. The study uses numerous methods of data collection (these include the use of questionnaires, interviews and analysis of secondary data), recommended by Saunders et al. (2007) as a way of achieving high internal validity. The study also employs other methods acknowledged by Eisenhardt (1999) and de Vaus (2010) used normally for case studies.

The study entailed data collection from numerous perspectives within the case. 180 questionnaires were administered to both full-time and part-time workers at operational level, and interviews were conducted on eight operational workers, union representatives and senior and middle-level managers. Therefore, all efforts to obtain a whole picture of the complexity of the case by analyzing its essential elements was exhausted (de Vaus, 2001, p. 220). This kind of approach (multi-level) also ensures richness of the collected data and cross-checks data validity.

Even though there are disadvantages associated with single case study as opposed to numerous case studies such as lack of opportunity to replicate the results, single case study is vital in corroborating, expanding or challenging a particular theory (Eisenhardt, 1999, p. 38). The single case study of the Hotel shows most of the principal employment characteristics that exists in hospitality industry.

The first contact with the Hotel Employees was made with the top management through a phone conversation where the aim of the research was defined and data collection processes discussed. The researcher availed copies of the proposed questionnaires and interview questions to the departmental heads. They were supplied to the employees who were supposed to complete them before the beginning of the shift and during break times. The first part of the questionnaire mainly dwelled on the details of the employment. The second part commenced on the 17 items of Allen and Meyer’s (1990) OCS (Organizational Commitment Scale) in addition to 8 items from Mowday et al. (1979) OCQ (Organizational Commitment Questionnaire), which were incorporated after the analysis of pre-test data. The third part focused on the demographic information.The interviews were also conducted to enhance richness of data and to add meaning to the questionnaire. Each interview with the management took roughly 20 minutes and those with operational workers about 10 minutes.

The choice of questionnaires and example methods was justified because The selection of in-depth, exploratory interviews as a method of primary research for this study is justified on the basis of a number of particular considerations:

• As a primary objective of the exploratory interview was to identify the range of pertinent issues from each perspective, an exclusively safe environment was required.
• The issues to be covered in detail are complex in nature, requiring time and discussion in order to achieve more complete answers.
• Questionnaires carry a significant level of authority in their respective fields, and it is important that their contributions be properly and respectively attributed.
• As high-level representatives of the respondents were targeted, the scheduling of individual sessions was more practical than attempting to assemble a group.

From this general view, it is apparent that these qualitative study cycles are developing from one process to the next. While in the process of exploring the study theories, new variables emerged (Saunders et al. 2007). These outcomes test the study and guide the development of the questionnaire from the literature outcomes from a non-biased angle.

Research Strategy

First, cases were selected purposefully in qualitative research, with regard to whether or not they correlated with some contextual characteristics or locations. Next, the part played by the researchers was to obtain a higher critical care (de Vaus, 2001, p.89). This is mainly done through qualitative research due to the fact that there is every chance of the researcher assuming a transcendental or a ‘neutral’ position. Thus, this appears to be more elusive both in philosophical and/or practical terms. It is for this reason that the qualitative researchers are frequently pressed to mirror on their part in the research procedures and make things obvious in their research analyses.

Consequently, a wide variety of forms can be taken by qualitative data analysis; the forms range within quantitative research in its coverage on meaning, signs, and language. Moreover, qualitative research procedures evaluate contextually and holistically, instead of being isolationist and reductionist. Nevertheless, transparent and systematic methods to analysis are ever considered as crucial for cogency. For instance, majority of qualitative processes need researchers to methodologically script data and to know and record themes reliably and consistently (Bryman, 2003, p.217).

It is the qualitative procedures that are used for explaining puzzling quantitative results or for exploration (i.e. hypothesis-generating). However, the most customary division between the employment of quantitative and qualitative research particularly in the social sciences is that quantitative methods are employed to evaluate the main hypotheses. This is so to establish content correctness and to evaluate measures that the researcher believes he/she should evaluate. This is regarded as one of the striking benefits of qualitative research. Some regard quantitative methods to offer more samples, precise and reliable measures through focalized hypotheses, evaluation techniques and applied mathematics. On the contrary, qualitative data is normally arduous to display or graph in mathematical terms (Bryman, 2003, p.217). Qualitative overtures have the benefit of permitting for more multifariousness with regard to the replies and the capability to fit into new happenings or matters particularly during the research process itself. An outstanding element of qualitative research is that it can be time-consuming and expensive to carry-out, many provinces of research use qualitative procedures that have been chiefly planned to offer more cost-efficient, succinct and timely outcomes (Bryman, 2003, p.218).

Ethical Issues

In this research study, the researcher is hypothesized to have considered all parts of the ethical issues. The ethical issues need to be pointed out in the proposal of the research. Research should be designed and undertaken in such a way that it fosters quality and integrity. The research staff needs to be informed of the purpose, methods and the use of the research. In addition, research also needs to respect the confidential information and the anonymity of the respondents. The harm that may be transferred to the participants must be avoided (Bryman, 2003, p.234). In line with this research on work commitment of full-time workers and part-time workers, the data collected had to be confidential and not reported to others. The participants were required to take part in the research voluntarily, and they had the right of not answering questions that they regarded as uncomfortable. The researcher needs to respect the anonymity of the respondents. However, sometimes it may misrepresent the data when conducting data analysis (Bryman, 2003, p.234).

Data Collection Methods

Data can be classified into two and they are secondary data and primary data. Primary data refers to the new data (observation, survey, interview, experiment, etc) that the researcher needs to collect for the research while secondary data refers to the existing data that are available in various sources including books, journals, internet, etc. (Easterby, 2008, p.216). For primary data collection, the issue is to focus on sampling. As far as researcher is considered, the sampling technique is significant. For example, the sample size that is determined should not be too small as this will make it difficult to generalize the data. It is to be noted that reliable results can be originated from larger sample size (Bryman, 2003, p.309)

Secondary data can be said to be quantifiable. Quantitative data collection methods mean that numerical data are collected and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, which provide wide coverage, reliability and objectivity, but lack other details and specific information. Qualitative data collection methods refer to non-numeric data that are collected through observations, interviews and formal or informal discussions. It deals with specific problem, but lacks objectivity and generalization (Saunders, 2009, p.241). Secondary data was got mainly from publications, case studies and from the internet sources.

The primary data sources in the case study comprised of questionnaires and interviews, and texts and documents. The use of in-depth, questionnaire and examples was considered by the researcher to be the best means of capturing both perspectives, allowing each contributor a safe, confidential and ample space in which to express views and opinions. In addition, in-depth interviews would provide a depth and breadth of understanding, satisfying the primary research objectives. However, this method is not without challenges for the researcher: the lack of structure requires a skilful approach by the researcher in order to elicit the required information in an unbiased fashion; in-depth interviews can be time consuming and costly; the interpretation and analysis of respondent contribution can be difficult and time consuming; and non-verbal communication, such as body language must also be interpreted.

Sample Selection

The questionnaires were issued to the employees at Marriott International Hong Kong. The study chose a target of 200 respondents and received feedback from 188 respondents. This is equivalent to a 94% response rate which is very excellent. The questionnaire targeted mostly the regular operational employees, middle level managers and the senior managers.

Limitation of Data Collection Methods

There have been a lot of concerns on additional budgetary expenses for collection of the data, regardless of whether the gathered data is really genuine or not and whether there may be an explicit conclusion when interpreting and analyzing the data (Noor, 2008, p.1602).In addition, some employees were reluctant to offer some information they deemed confidential and can make them lose their job. This posed a great challenge to the research as the researcher had to take a longer time to find employees who were willing to give out adequate information.

Validity and Reliability

Validity of the data represents the data integrity and it connotes that the data is accurate and much consistent. Validity has been explained as a descriptive evaluation of the association between actions and interpretations and empirical evidence deduced from the data (Robson, 2002, p.214). The canyon of validity is applicable to all guises of evaluation (which are both qualitative and quantitative) by coalescing scientific inquiry and rational debates to prove or disprove the outcomes and interpretations emanating from the data collected (Carter, 2009, p.239).

Study Reliability

This study gained reliability of the examples and literature sources because the subject under study is recorded in various peer reviewed academic databases that are accessible to the researcher and other interested verifiers. (Saunders et al. 2007).The literature was from peer reviewed journals and articles, therefore, this study gained considerable reliability.

Construct Validity

The study has gained construct validity because of the application of the literature review and use of primary data as the foundation of the multiple sources to cover for the limitations of each source (Saunders et al. 2007).The primary sources of information were the application of the questionnaire to the employees of Marriott International Hong Kong. The data coding was for confidentiality of the details of the respondents and for future traceability, by the researcher incase of error found at advanced stages in the research process. In data coding, letters and numbers were used to denote the various questionnaires by the respondents. The data coding was also important for future traceability of information sources just incase there was need to verify some facts or verify trend in results. The literature-reviewed sources are also traceable by credible web link.

Internal Validity

Internal validity is achieved by matching the primary data with literature reviews. However, the internal validity of this study guards against perception errors; against halo effects, for example, that respondents had prior feedback; against memory recall, for example, that respondents could not get the past fact rights and against reflexivity, for example, that the respondents gave convenient feedback to the researcher (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).

External Validity

The outcomes from this study require external validity. Since work commitment is a universal phenomenon, the outcomes will be externally valid when they show similar trends to other organizations in the hospitality industry. Therefore, the gaps arising in the external validity fill by various case studies as elaborated in the research process. The main aim of external validity is to predict a trend in work commitment among full-time and part-time employees and familiar literature reviews as well as to outline any major differences in the theories (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).

Results and Analysis

The case study took place at Marriott International Hong Kong. The hotel has about 1400 guest rooms and more than four food and drinks outlets. The hotel also has restaurants and lounges, swimming pools, fitness and recreational facilities, and Spa. The Hotel’s personnel are in excess of 800 employees working in different departments (Marriot, 2012). Key statistics of workforce at Marriot International Hong Kong are summarized in table 1.

Table 1: Key Statistics of Workforce at Marriot International Hong Kong

Out of the 188 respondents (operational workers) to the questionnaire, roughly 40% were part-timers. This number is slightly higher than the proportion of the overall part-timers in the Hotel. However, there was somehow under-representation of females in the case study (45.9% as compared to overall proportion of 50%). Over half of the part-timers who responded to the survey stated that they were in temporary employment because they could not get permanent employment, signifying preference for full-time employment.

To establish the level of satisfaction among these employees, they were asked whether they were satisfied with their work status, and if satisfied, the degree of satisfaction. Generally, 75% of the respondents affirmed that they were satisfied with their work status and of these, 45% affirmed that they were very satisfied. Cross-tabulation was done to determine satisfaction and degree of satisfaction of respondent’s work status. From the study we established that part-timers were less satisfied with their work than full-timers. 59% of the part-timers stated that they were satisfied with their work and out of this, 60% were either fairly or slightly satisfied. In comparison, about 89% of the full timers stated that they were satisfied with their work and out of this, 36% were either fairly or slightly satisfied.

To probe whether part-time workers have lesser degree of commitment than full-time workers, the data from Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS) was initially tested for reliability and discriminate validity as per Allen and Meyer (1990).To compare the degree of commitment among part-time employees and full-time employees, independent sample t-tests were carried out. The average for composite measures for affective, continuance and normative commitment were first taken across the items in each scale. In accordance with literature, commitments of part-time employees were found to be lower. The table blow summarizes the findings.

Table 2: Samples t-test

The examination of the data from the questionnaire showed that part-time employees had considerably lower levels of affective commitment than full-time counterparts, but there was not considerable disparity in the degree of continuance and normative commitment between the two set of employees. This results are supported by the literature review which had predicted the same (Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, 2003; Clarke and Chen, 2007). On the other hand, the analysis of the data from the interviews showed even though the hotel management perceived the commitment of part-time workers to be lower than full-timers, this was not an intuitive thought from the workers alone. According to one of the managers part-time works are not as committed to work as to their personal interests. One of the union representative asserted that pert-time employees were not committed because of how they are treated in the organization.

The questions asked to workers at the operational level related mainly to the items of Organizational Commitment Scale. For effective commitment, the researcher enquired whether they felt attached and pleased of working in the Hotel. Both two set of employees (part-time and full-time employees) pointed out that they were pleased working for the Hotel, but were more attached to each other than to the Hotel. The response related to continuance commitment indicated that both the full-timers and part-timers had no intention of leaving their jobs because the Hotel offered a number of benefits such as free meals, flexible working hours and uniforms which is not the case in other local Hotels. However, the response to normative commitment, workers gave varied responses pointing out the reciprocal nature of loyalty and everyone had their own view of loyalty. Some of them felt that it was prudent to stay with a single employer for a while than jumping from one employer to the other.

Conclusion

The results of the data analysis from the questionnaire relating to lower commitment of part-time employees is significant since, of the three commitment components, this is the most popular (Allen and Meyer. 1996, p. 3). The conceptualizations of affective commitment by a number of researchers show that it is the most fundamental form of commitment in the organization. This is because it relates to the feeling of attachment and belonging to an organization, which is not tainted by the moderately conditional forms of the other two forms of commitment. In the case of normative commitment, a sense of belonging and attachment is somehow tainted because workers have strong general sense of commitment. In other words, employee loyalty is not restricted to one organization and therefore it is the least desirable form of commitment. For that reason, the results of lower affective commitment of part-time workers are the most important for any organization.

Even though there is some lack of accuracy as to the impact of lower levels of affective commitment, consistency exists in literatures relating to its consequence on employees’ turnover (Allen and Meyer, 1996, p. 265). Fascinatingly though, Marriott International Hong Kong has lower rate of turnover compared to the whole industry, though this number is high among the part-timers. Nonetheless, it is the results from the interview that can provide more information regarding the management of part-time employees and level of turnover.

Consistently both set of employees voiced their sense of loyalty based on what the Hotel provides for them, rather than a sense of loyalty or attachment to the Hotel inherently. Both full-time and part-time employees felt some level of commitment to the organization because of the services offered and their concern for the welfare of the Hotel, probably because this would affect them in terms of job loss and not because of their attachment to the Hotel.

To a great extent, the benefit valued by most workers can easily be availed by large Hotels such Marriott International. Researchers have discovered that most of these large organizations are less likely to develop feeling of commitments as compared to smaller organizations (Riley, 2000, p. 34). This partly attributed to the fact that large organizations offer certain benefits that are not available elsewhere and there large size offers an element of security. In the study, both part-time and full-time employees expressed high degree of loyalty and commitment to their fellow workers. This loyalty among workers is very significant since it also affects commitment (Cohen, 2000, p. 389). This is a novel form of commitment since organizational commitment is being replaced by interpersonal commitment. This feeling of loyalty was underpinned by the social context in which the workers viewed their fellow colleagues. One of the part-time operational employee revealed that he had no other friends within the workplace except his work colleagues.

The concept of conditionality of work commitment was dominant in the interview. Fewer studies have been carried out on the employer’s commitment to workers. This is a significant area of management of organizational commitment that should be given a lot of emphasis in the future since it affects staff turn over rate to large extent. Most organizations are now attempting to increase commitment through conventional HR practices, for instance, provision of training and development opportunities and monitoring and evaluation of performance (Bratton and Gold, 2007, p. 4).

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