Introduction
The perception of gender is connected to significant controversy in modern American society. The views on femininity and masculinity and the biological determinism of gender are based on the traditional perspective on these topics, with evident Christian roots. For example, the Christian doctrine does not suppose that biological sex and gender can be different, which means that trans people have psychological problems (Carriero & Todesco, 2018). The vital detail is that religion only partially determines most people’s views in modern Western culture.
Most young people use public media, including magazines, television series, and movies, as a source of information for their worldview. They depend significantly on the opinions that famous people of their generation consider worthy of attention (Carriero & Todesco, 2018). Therefore, trendsetters and media represent the dominant discourse most individuals take inspiration from. The interest in gender representation in media is determined by the need to understand the changes that occur in contemporary popular culture.
It is necessary to mention the idea of “doing gender” popularized in contemporary media. It exemplifies the hypothesis that gender is not a biologically determined category. Instead, the modern trend in perceiving gender emphasizes that gender is a socially determined construct.
In other words, a child does not know how women and men should behave and look until they start communicating with adult people and follow their example in gender roles (Perales et al., 2018). Children adapt to the rules that society imposes on people because they are born as females or males. This idea makes individuals doubt whether these constraints are positive or negative, and the consequences of these actions.
The discussion of biological determinism in choosing gender roles features such notions as abuse and artificial restrictions on the personality. For example, it is assumed that cisgender roles are connected with stereotyping. Men are brought up in the context of toxic masculinity, while women learn that the weakness of their character should be a positive thing (Perales et al., 2018). No need to say that these stereotypical perceptions of gender make those people who “do gender” in the wrong, not traditional manner, outcasts in the society that lives according to the traditionalist views (Perales et al., 2018). The contemporary media discourse emphasizes the importance of including all individuals without imposing artificial restrictions that do not allow them to preserve their personalities.
Popular media discourse may focus on diversity when it promotes the message about the need for diversity. These tendencies are reflected in the ways the trendsetters represent genders in media. For example, popular apparel brands emphasize that males and females can wear their clothes, and their design is usually neutral (Perales et al., 2018). In other words, it is impossible to guess whether the apparel is for men or women. In addition, the models appearing in popular media have different physical forms, conveying that a man and a woman can look different in various ways.
A century ago, it was impossible to find neutral apparel for men and women when traditional gender roles dominated American culture (Perales et al., 2018). People who do not conform to beauty standards were not represented in the public media even a decade ago. These details show a significant change in the perception of gender in modern society, which is reflected in the media discourse.
It is vital to mention that media discourse includes movies and magazine articles discussing them. These methods of receiving information are predominantly visual, allowing the audience to grasp the most vital details for creating the gender role. In other words, the public media aim to instruct people on how to behave and which characteristics are regarded as the culturally acceptable norm for males and females.
The situation with the educational character of the media stays the same over time (Perales et al., 2018). It used to be the method of instruction several decades ago, and it promoted the traditional gender image. Nowadays, it is also instructive in its character, promoting a more liberal and evolved perception of femininity and masculinity.
It allows us to assume that media discourse constructs the mainstream perception of gender and appropriate manifestations of femininity and masculinity. The critical analysis of newspaper articles that focus on Disney movies discussion will allow us to understand how the media sets trends in the perception of gender among children and the ways it is represented in culture. Modern media is the trendsetter of public opinion on sex and gender, and the direction of the opinion is opposed to the traditional one. Christian traditionalism was the basis for perceiving the constraints of gender roles until recent decades. The rationale for choosing Disney movies and articles discussing them is explained by focusing on how gender is constructed for the children’s audience.
The research question is whether the media discourse moves away from the rigid perception of the norm and develops towards a more liberal and inclusive understanding of gender.
Methodology
The chosen analytical strategy for researching the topic of representing gender in public media is discourse analysis. The information is gathered from articles in popular newspapers, images popularized on social media, and movies associated with Disney. Two magazine articles discussing and analyzing gender in Disney products are discussed and analyzed in this paper.
The first is written by Markowicz (2022) and entitled “I’m quitting Disney after seeing it boast about pushing ‘gender theory’.” The second article by Rose (2022) is “How Disney found its pride – and riled the American right.“ These sources of information can be defined as public media, and they have comparatively similar effects on the human perception of reality. The images of gender are promoted through them, and they construct the way most people think about the fundamental questions of human existence. In the discussed situation, the traditional narrative about the synonymous essence of gender and biological sex and the need to pursue the traditional gender role is disputed. The ideas of diversity, inclusion, and the free choice of every person in the questions of “doing gender“ are promoted through these sources of information.
The notion of ontology includes the existing knowledge about the subject. It is possible to describe the conventional gender representation of femininity and masculinity in the cultural discourse with the symbolic annihilation of women in the media. The term “symbolic annihilation“ was coined by Gaye Tuckman in 1978 to describe the unequal treatment of women in specific social roles (Klaas & Boukes, 2019).
Men are represented in a variety of social and professional positions at the same time. The researchers assert that the accomplishments of women are overlooked, frequently downplayed, or not mentioned, and are given less weight than other factors, such as their appearances (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). Women are primarily portrayed in stereotypical gender roles, such as carrying out domestic duties and being wives and caregivers (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). In advertisements for detergent, mothers and their young children are frequently seen washing clothes together. In contrast, advertisements often show men and young boys playing or working outdoors.
Epistemology features the ways people can obtain this information from the media. The epistemological approach applied when discussing gender in the media discourse is social constructionism. From this point of view, reality is socially constructed, which means that there are specific ways in which people create their perception of the surrounding events.
This definition is consistent with the description of public media’s work in society. Even though it is supposed that the media should reflect reality or the truth, there is no absolute truth according to the social constructionist perspective. In this case, trendsetters are the constructors of reality, whereas other humans are actors and symbols.
It is possible to illustrate these assumptions with the example of the representation of gender in fashion magazines. Several decades ago, the acceptable femininity depicted in magazines featured white skin, a slim body, long hair, and elegance. Nowadays, some images show female models with different body shapes and racial identities. It would have been perceived as strange decades ago because it was not conventional, but now it is regarded as the acceptable norm (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). This example shows that the representation of femininity in fashion magazines changes the way people think about this notion.
Analytical Narrative of the Chosen Material
The dominant discourse emphasizes the importance of sharing the view it promotes as the only acceptable one in the situation, with the representation of femininity and masculinity in the public media. It influences the knowledge people share about the topic, the social practices that change due to the influence of the dominant discourse, and the consequences of the discourse in real life. Several powerful narratives about gender can be generally described as traditional and liberal.
The articles by Markowicz (2022) and Rose (2022) emphasize that old Disney works featured the traditional narrative about gender, while the most recent ones try to promote the new discourse. It is written in the article: “From critical race theory to gender ideology, executives are pushing extreme left-wing activism in every facet of the company, from erasing the words’ boys‘ and ‘girls‘ from its theme parks to tracking ‘canonical trans characters‘ in its children’s programs“ (Rose, 2022, p. 1). Society is positioned as the regulating instituting that imposes gender roles on children. This quote is connected with two discourses about gender that are “legal discourse around age limits for LGBT propaganda“ and “gender identity as a social role.”
The traditional narrative depicts men as strong and dominant, while women are perceived as beautiful and kind, and the roles of caregivers and wives restrict their social roles. The liberal narrative opposes these assumptions, and the difference can be found both in the idea of gender roles in general and in the level of detail of the image in particular. It is possible to illustrate these assumptions with the following quotes from the articles.
For instance, Markowicz (2022) writes that children “may have been born into the wrong body“ (Markowicz, 2022, p. 1). In her turn, Rose writes that “children are extremely susceptible to suggestion“ outside forces instructing their children on gender identity (Rose, 2022, p. 1). Both quotes interact with the discourses referred to as “gender identity as influenced by others,” “gender identity as biologically determined and binary,“ and “gender identity as freedom to choose.“ It allows stating that the traditional and the liberal discourses are opposed to each other in the questions of gender and in instructing children about it.
It is possible to connect the discourse about the representation of gender roles in the media with such institutions as feminism, psychology, and education. However, it corresponds most to the description of the biological discourse. According to the perspective of the biological discourse, there is no difference between gender and sex, which means that gender is determined from birth (Rose, 2022). The current media position about the fluidity of gender roles and a less rigid perception of femininity and masculinity is against the views of the biological discourse (Yurcaba, 2022). In addition, the current discourse is opposed to the institution of religion that emphasizes the importance of preserving the traditional view on femininity and masculinity and has a controversial attitude toward trans people.
The issues mentioned above are connected with the legal discourse around age limits for LGBT propaganda in public media. It is possible to illustrate the problems with the following quotes from the discussed articles. For instance, Rose (2022, p. 1) uses such words to describe this topic as “adding queerness“ wherever she can and “inappropriate indoctrination on transgenderism.“
A similar topic is discussed by Markowicz (2022, p. 1) using the subsequent phrases: “Classroom instruction by school personnel or third parties on sexual orientation or gender identity may not occur in kindergarten through grade 3 or in a manner that is not age-appropriate or developmentally appropriate,“ and “Disney is a cautionary tale about ideological capture.“ Companies like Disney that create content for children are positioned as the responsible sides for instructing minors on gender issues.
As portrayed in the media, the ideal of femininity evolves with time and reflects the culture. The traditional narrative is based on the assumption that women are beautiful and conforming but weak (Markowicz, 2022). It is possible to conclude that media depictions in the traditional narrative were constructed around the cult of womanhood by studying the article about the typical Disney narrative about gender created for children (Markowicz, 2022). The depictions were founded on traditional, conventional gender roles and beliefs, including those that stress physical beauty, are loving, family-oriented, and are associated with marriage (Markowicz, 2022).
It is possible to argue that teen movies and animations with a young female audience contain diverse female portrayals. Their attention is still on relationships with males, housework, and dressing to meet male beauty standards (Markowicz, 2022). According to a study on how athletics are presented on television, women’s sporting achievements receive little attention and are frequently sexualized, undervalued, and trivialized (Boczek et al., 2022). It allows us to assume that the image of typical femininity is vulnerable in the traditional media narrative. It determined how people perceived females for decades when it was dominant in the cultural discourse.
The theory of the “male gaze“ describes how male audiences are made to feel overly sexualized by female characters and their bodies through the images the media emphasizes. Women are depicted by popular culture as sex toys that men can use and exploit for their pleasure. Male gaze exposure occurs when a movie or television program scene concentrates on women’s body parts, including breasts, legs, and hips, that are typically sexually attractive (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). The camera keeps focusing on them for an extended period. In this technique, women are portrayed as sex symbols for both the movie’s protagonists and the viewers, assuming that the spectator has a heterosexual male viewpoint (Yurcaba, 2022).
Doing this further establishes that men are dominant and women are passive recipients of male attention. Consequently, women in the media are dehumanized and oversexualized rather than permitted to live as individual personalities regardless of their sexual orientation (Yurcaba, 2022). The male gaze largely dominates cinematography and photography and is part of the traditional narrative about femininity.
Since the appearance of contemporary media, females have been portrayed inaccurately. The sexualization of women can be seen in vintage Disney movies, where young, frail heroines are frequently saved and married to powerful, mature men. Disney movies specifically reinforce gender norms (Yurcaba, 2022).
For instance, in the fairy tale “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,“ Snow White takes care of the home where the seven dwarves reside before being saved by a knight. In “Beauty and the Beast,“ Belle remains with the monster who made her a prisoner in his castle to atone for his crimes (Yurcaba, 2022). In “Mulan,“ the primary female character wins a battle alone because she wants to return home and fall in love (Yurcaba, 2022). Therefore, the traditional narrative is quite typical, and it is easy to trace it in the classical movies that serve as society’s educational tool for children.
In recent years, there have been significant changes in how femininity is portrayed in the media. Women now hold various positions compared to the recent few decades (Markowicz, 2022). Examining the trends in gender portrayal in the media with the help of discourse analysis shows the evolution of gender portrayal. Since the 1970s, it has been possible to notice an increase in the variety of media representations of femininity and a corresponding decline in stereotypical images, which suggests a cultural shift (Markowicz, 2022).
For example, the Disney movies’ heroines and the children’s role models gained other characteristics, as the articles show. They have become stronger and more potent and could accomplish remarkable things (Markowicz, 2022). Nevertheless, since each lead female character is fragile and conventionally beautiful, rather than challenging hegemonic notions of masculinity, the examples mentioned above reinforce the beauty myth.
It is reasonable to highlight the burden women experience to uphold the myth of beauty. It is vital to draw attention to the fact that real women’s bodies and faces are sometimes altered or substituted by synthetic images, airbrushed, using sophisticated technologies and computerized systems (Markowicz, 2022). In the media, women are portrayed as mannequins with flawless complexions who are thin, tall, and proportionately perfect (Markowicz, 2022). The media portrayals of this widely held cultural belief associate thinness with good health, happiness, and a way to succeed or gain recognition.
Another feminist viewpoint is that most women protagonists are portrayed as self-sufficient and assertive because they take on male traits. These details show that despite the evident progress in gender representation in contemporary media, there are still controversial issues concerning the imagery used in the movies.
Males and masculinity are portrayed as founded on physical ability, aggression, and brutality. These characteristics are thought to be biologically fixed, making it natural for men to acquire and exhibit them. In the 1980s, publications like FHM, GQ, and Maxim, which appealed to middle-class young males, gained popularity (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). These periodicals promoted the views that men should feel free to express their emotions and be open, that men should be at ease with their emotions and feminine sides, that men should treat women equally, and that men should be aware of their appearance (Klaas & Boukes, 2019). It allows us to assume that these publications redefined the idea of masculinity and presented the audience with the modern male. These facts show that the traditional narratives about gender change with time due to the evolution of society and the context in general, and Disney movies reflect these tendencies vividly.
Conclusion
Gender representations in the media are meaningful because they support a dominant cultural discourse that portrays males as superior and women as inferior. An explanation of how mainstream media represents gender is shown in Disney movies for children and adolescents, and is analyzed in two articles discussing these topics. Numerous sociologists who depict women believe that media representations connect ideas of femininity and masculinity to common stereotypes and offer role models for men and women to aspire to or draw inspiration from.
It has become apparent that women have traditionally been unfavorably and conventionally depicted by the media, both underrepresenting and misinterpreting them. It is possible to connect the cult of womanhood, theories of symbolic annihilation, and the masculine vision in this context. Even though gender stereotyping still appears in media portrayals, the discourse has changed dramatically.
The representation of gender in public media changes from the depiction of the traditional gender roles that cismen and ciswomen have. It is possible to assume that the emphasis on the characteristics of cisgender roles is regarded as the old-fashioned way of interacting with this concept. Even though transwomen and transmen are not dominant in the existing media discourse on gender issues, their representation becomes more evident.
The processes that occur in the current public discourse can be defined as the movement from depicting traditional cisgender roles to images that do not suppose rigid gender constraints. These findings can be implemented in the context of the broader literature because they summarize the changes in modern discourse and the evolution of the perception of gender. These views impact popular culture and contribute to developing a new perspective on femininity and masculinity.
Reflection
People often underestimate the impact of the media discourse on popular views, and the topic of gender is no exception. Every individual used a role model from movies or animations in childhood, which was the first step in adopting gender-appropriate behavior. Therefore, the Disney animated films discussed in this paper have an evident impact on forming views on the gender discourse.
The way the protagonists in these movies look, speak, and interact with others is part of the image that children adopt. They understand by example the details about women and men, and the ideas the animators spread using this type of media content determine children’s worldview, even when they become adults. Therefore, the media discourse significantly impacts the formation of public views on gender and related categories.
The vital detail is that visual types in the media form the cultural discourse the most. Magazines with pictures, movies, and television series reflect the recent views on gender roles and images of appropriate femininity and masculinity. The shift from the traditional narrative to a more liberal one is evident now.
Western culture tries to change the conventional narration and substitute it with a more gender-neutral approach. The peculiar issue is that despite the attempts, the results still need to be revised. There are many controversial assumptions about gender portrayal in the popular media. Therefore, there are many opportunities for creating a new, more neutral discourse concerning gender roles. The examples from the modern media illustrate these claims and justify the conclusions.
References
Boczek, K., Dogruel, L., & Schallhorn, C. (2022) Gender byline bias in sports reporting: Examining the visibility and audience perception of male and female journalists in sports coverage. Journalism, 16. Web.
Carriero, R., & Todesco, L. (2018). Housework division and gender ideology: When do attitudes really matter? Demographic Research, 39, 1039–1064. Web.
Klaas, E., & Boukes, M. (2019). A woman’s got to write what a woman’s got to write: The effect of journalist’s gender on the perceived credibility of news articles. Feminist Media Studies, 22(3), pp. 571-587. Web.
Markowicz, K. (2022). I’m quitting Disney after seeing it boast about pushing ‘gender theory’. New York Post. Web.
Perales, F., Jarallah, Y., & Baxter, J. (2018). Men’s and women’s gender-role attitudes across the transition to parenthood: Accounting for child’s gender. Social Forces, 97(1), 251–276. Web.
Rose, S. (2022). How Disney found its pride – and riled the American right. The Guardian. Web.
Appendix
Appendix 1 – Articles
Quotes from the articles used for the analysis.
Markowicz, K. (2022). I’m quitting Disney after seeing it boast about pushing ‘gender theory’. New York Post. Web.
- discuss how they insert the “not-at-all-secret gay agenda” into children’s programming.
- “adding queerness” wherever she [Latoya Raveneau] can
- the company [Disney] is “going hard” to be supportive.
- Disney Parks’ diversity and inclusion manager
- No more “Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls.” No longer will a little girl in a gown be greeted with “Hello, princess!” as my daughter had been so many times on our Disney World trips. Disney has been pushed to toe the leftist gender line
- “Classroom instruction by school personnel or third parties on sexual orientation or gender identity may not occur in kindergarten through grade 3 or in a manner that is not age appropriate or developmentally appropriate.”
- inappropriate indoctrination on transgenderism
- But why should parents continue to trust a company that is putting this kind of brainwashing into children’s entertainment? Why should kids be getting any sort of gender-identity lesson in school or at a theme park?
- business of sexualizing kids
- Karey Burke vowed at the meeting to make at least half the characters in the company’s productions LGBTQIA and racial minorities by year’s end — which doesn’t reflect society.
- “Disney is a cautionary tale about ideological capture”
- From critical race theory to gender ideology, executives are pushing extreme left-wing activism in every facet of the company, from erasing the words ‘boys’ and ‘girls’ from its theme parks to tracking ‘canonical trans characters’ in its children’s programs.”
- sharp leftward turn feel
- a company actively promoting a political agenda so far removed from our own.
- pushing gender dysphoria onto ever younger children will never be popular among the very people who make up Disney’s core audience: families.
- they may have been born into the wrong body. Children are extremely susceptible to suggestion
- outside forces instructing their children on gender identity.
Rose, S. (2022). How Disney found its pride – and riled the American right. The Guardian.Web.
- weaponisation of “critical race theory”
- Republicans have identified LGBTQ+ rights as another potential wedge issue, even linking them with paedophilia and grooming
- Disney, which now owns Star Wars, Marvel, Pixar and 20th Century Studios, is the US’s pre-eminent cultural superpower, with particular influence over children.
- Walt Disney was never a card-carrying homophobe but he was a steadfast conservative, and long after his death in 1966, Disney’s output continued to promote “traditional” and “family” values. That didn’t discount “coding” Disney characters (usually villains) as queer, in that they exhibited stereotypically gay attributes such as effeminate behaviour or disinterest in the opposite sex: Jafar in Aladdin, for example, or Scar in The Lion King, or even Shere Khan the tiger in The Jungle Book.
- Cinderella goes from dowdy domestic to sparkling princess at the wave of a wand; Mowgli must decide whether he belongs in the jungle or the village; Mulan masquerades as male to join the Chinese army, during which time she forms an ambiguous bond with the handsome captain. Princess Elsa in Frozen is urged by her parents to suppress her true nature but after she is figuratively “outed” (as a sorceress), she flees her heteronormative destiny, preferring to belt out Let It Go in icy isolation: “Don’t let them in, don’t let them see / Be the good girl you always have to be / Conceal don’t feel, don’t let them know …”
- The fact that the evil sea witch, Ursula, was modelled on renowned drag artist Divine only adds to the queer appeal.
- In the early years, Disney would warn “straight” visitors when it was Gay Day and hand out white T-shirts to non-participants who had inadvertently turned up wearing red. While Disney does not officially recognise Gay Day, it soon came to appreciate the commercial clout of the LGBTQ+ community. There is no end of rainbow-coloured Disney merchandise on sale, and Disney accommodates and facilitates the Gay Day schedule of events, including a week-long festival taking place across the city, with club nights, drag shows, pool parties, and special hotel deals.
Appendix 2 – Analysis
Data from the stages of analysis:
Research and initial thoughts: Information is gathered from secondary sources on gender and traditional and liberal discourses on this issue. The articles were found on the Jstore database and are credible and scientific. The primary sources are two newspaper articles providing different perspectives on how gender is represented in Disney products. For the discourse analysis, references to the classic animated movies by Disney, including “Beauty and the beast,” “Snow white,” and “Mulan,” are made. Even though they are not described in the articles, how gender roles are represented in these films is critical for understanding the discussion. Perhaps, most people know about the imagery shown in these cinematographic works, which makes the analysis possible.
The research questions is: whether the media discourse moves away from the rigid perception of the norm and develops towards a more liberal and inclusive understanding of gender.
Analysis of discursive constructions: See in Appendix 1.
Discursive constructions: The objective is to recognize every distinct construction method used to create the object. The simplest way to start understanding this is by observing the various messages emerging from the newspapers regarding the theme. Then, it is possible to identify these different frameworks by underlining them. The structures need to respond to the inquiry to meet the criteria of the discourse analysis.
How is gender identity constructed in the animated movies by Disney, and how is it represented in the media?
Discursive constructions related to gender identity and role are the following:
- Gender identity as biologically determined and binary.
- Gender identity as a social role.
- Gender identity as freedom to choose.
- Gender identity as influenceable by others.
- Gender identity as a source of fear and confusion.
- Gender identity as a cause of mental illness.
- Legal discourse around age limits for LGBT propaganda.
- Psychological discourse around influence.
Table 1 – Analysis of discourses
Thematic Map with Coded Material
