Introduction
Historians, scholars, and the general public have been intrigued by the witch trials in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Numerous studies have been carried out to reveal the reasons behind these notorious trials. Some researchers concentrate on social and economic aspects, while others have highlighted gender as a significant factor in the prevalence of witch hunts (Smith 99).
The present paper will analyze several primary and secondary sources about this topic. The question posed is whether witch hunts can be attributed primarily to gender discrimination. At the same time, economic and social factors played an important role; it is argued that gender biases ultimately drove witch persecutions.
Economic and Social Factors
The witch hunts of the early modern period were influenced by a complex set of economic and social factors, which played a significant role in the gender dynamics of these trials. Women’s low social status, economic dependence, and social insecurity made them vulnerable targets; “women were the most dependent members of the community, and thus the most vulnerable to accusation” (Morton lxiv). Furthermore, women were often targeted during times of economic change as they were seen as “coordinating elements” and conservative forces in village communities (Morton lxiv).
Holmes points out that women were perceived as the weaker sex, more easily seduced by satanic temptation, which contributed to the predominance of women accused of witchcraft (77). As the prosecution process was a complex, dialogic one involving multiple actors, women’s testimonies as witnesses served to reinforce this misogynous rationale (Holmes 77). Additionally, Holmes argues that “popular belief, shared by men and women, was that the mysterious, harmful power that constituted witchcraft would inhere in certain women” (75). These economic and social factors, combined with the gender dynamics at play, contributed to the scapegoating and persecution of women accused of witchcraft during the early modern period.
Mothers and Daughters
One of the themes that demonstrate a gender-based view on witch hunts is the relationship between mothers and daughters. According to historian Lyndal Roper, trials involving mothers and daughters were used as proof of the notion that witchcraft was transmitted from one generation to another (Roper, Chapter 7). Roper states that the relationship between a mother and daughter held a great deal of importance in these instances because it was frequently identified as the origin of the witchcraft accusation.
She notes, “If witchcraft truly was inherited, we might expect sisters, sons, and aunts to be as commonly cited as victims” (Roper, Chapter 7: Crones, 173). However, although these relationships are named, “they do not emerge with the chilling regularity of mother-daughter pairs” (Roper, Chapter 7: Crones, 173). While some of these accusations may have been a result of the pressures of interrogation, the prevalence of mother-daughter pairs suggests a deeper psychological imperative related to the power of the gender-based myth of witchcraft.
Interrogations and Torture
Interrogations and torture were significant factors in the gender-based persecutions and severity of witchcraft cases during the early modern period. In The Trial of Tempel Anneke, Morton highlights that “as a result of the psychological dynamics of the interrogation, those accused sometimes came to believe that they were witches and had sexual relations with the Devil” (69). De Blécourt also discusses the role of gender in witchcraft trials, stating that the male stereotype of a witch often represented the epitome of individual gain and achievement in a society that valued communal efforts (299).
One example of the influence of gender in witchcraft trials can be seen in the case of Tempel Anneke. She was subjected to intense questioning and physical torture, often being threatened with death if she did not confess. At the same time, De Blécourt describes the case of Lambert, a man who was accused of witchcraft. However, he is “only interrogated (not tortured, and eventually released)” (299). This case exemplifies how gender roles in early modern Europe led to horrific injustices for those accused of witchcraft.
Stereotypes About Elderly Women
Studies, including both primary and secondary sources, also pay specific attention to gender-based stereotypes surrounding older women being witches. In The Trial of Tempel Anneke, it is noted that “Most of the women charged and executed were elderly, and the classic image of a witch is that of an old hag” (Morton 69). Rowlands suggests that “old women were more likely to suffer from mental disorders which manifested themselves in forms of antisocial behavior that their neighbors identified as witch-like” (52).
Furthermore, “older women were most likely to display hostility and aggression because their gender and age rendered them particularly subject to pressing and frustrating socio-economic problems and sociocultural restrictions” (Rowlands 53). In contrast, younger male family members involved in similar cases often received leniency from authorities. Notably, these stereotypes persisted even after trials, emphasizing how entrenched they were in society then.
Anneke’s Trial
The trial of Tempel Anneke, as documented in Peter A. Morton’s book, provides a lens through which to examine the gendered nature of these witch hunts. The case of Tempel Anneke exposes the gendered nature of witch hunts through various aspects (Van Heyst 112). One key factor lies in the societal perception of women as susceptible to the Devil’s influence. Women were believed to be of weak understanding and more likely to be ensnared by the lies and illusions of the Devil (Morton xxxvi). This belief contributed to the disproportionate targeting of women during witch trials, with approximately 80% of those executed for witchcraft being female (Morton lxiv).
Women’s vulnerability to accusations was also tied to their social status. As the most dependent members of the community, women were particularly susceptible to accusations of witchcraft (Morton lxiv). The gendered dynamics of witch hunts were not limited to the victims. While women often gossiped or made accusations against suspected witches, male elites transformed these accusations into criminal proceedings (Morton lxiv). This demonstrates how gender roles within the community influenced the progression of witch trials.
Her gender defined Anneke’s life, as she was a wife and mother, working within the confines of the expectations placed on women during this time. The text states, “She supported herself with her husband, as long as he was alive, through working in the fields on the farm in Harxbüttel, where her son, Hans Kage, now still lives” (Morton 9). Her knowledge of traditional healing methods was used against her as evidence of witchcraft: “She then baked a sheep to powder in the oven and administered that to the sheep, whereupon all became healthy again” (Morton 5).
Women’s roles as primary caregivers and healers in their communities made them more vulnerable to accusations of using supernatural means to heal or harm others. Tempel Anneke’s trial also reveals instances of gendered insults and degradation, such as the young boy calling her an “old whore” (Morton 85). This disrespectful language demonstrates the societal norms of the time, where women were often seen as inferior and vulnerable to such attacks.
The stereotype of women being susceptible to the Devil’s influence is further evidenced in Anneke’s trial. The text states, “The Evil Enemy came to her the previous evening in her room in front of her bed and ordered her to the granary” (Morton 93). The woman in question, Tempel Anneke, is portrayed as vulnerable and easily manipulated by the Devil because of her gender.
Finally, the connection between women and witchcraft is emphasized by mentioning the witches’ gathering, Walpurgis Night. Anneke describes her attendance: “She went yearly to Walpurgis Night on a male goat, which Tilke brought, and traveled there with the same” (Morton 96). The fact that she rides a male goat to the gathering is another example of a woman using a male figure (in this case, an animal) for her purposes.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that multiple societal and economic factors, including the growth of capitalism, religious conflicts, and political instability, influenced the witch hunts in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Nonetheless, the persecution of those accused of witchcraft was primarily driven by gender biases, which resulted in the fact that women were more often under accusations due to their inferior social status.
Gender stereotypes surrounding witchcraft, such as associating it with mothers and daughters, older women, and fertility issues, were perpetuated, and harsh interrogation and torture methods further fuelled gender-based discrimination. By examining primary and secondary sources, one can understand the magnitude of the gender bias experienced by women during this period. Recognizing and addressing the systemic gender biases behind the witch trials is critical in modern society as well.
Works Cited
De Blécourt, Willem. “The Making of the Female Witch: Reflections on Witchcraft and Gender in the Early Modern Period.” Gender & History, vol. 12, no. 2, 2000, pp. 287–309. Web.
Holmes, Clive. “Women: Witnesses and Witches.” Past and Present, vol. 140, no. 1, 1993, pp. 45-78. Web.
Morton, Peter A., ed. The Trial of Tempel Anneke: Records of a Witchcraft Trial in Brunswick, Germany, 1663. The University of Toronto Press, 2017.
Roper, Lyndal. “Chapter 7: Crones.” Witch Craze: Terror and Fantasy in Baroque Germany. Yale University Press, 2004, pp. 160-178.
Rowlands, Alison. “Witchcraft and Old Women in Early Modern Germany.” Past & Present, no. 173, 2001, pp. 50-89. Web.
Smith, Philip. “A quantitative evaluation of demographic, gender and social transformation theories of the rise of European witch hunting 1300-1500.” Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (1992): 99-127. Web.
Van Heyst, Miranda Christine. “Tempel Anneke’s Confessions: Four Phases of Faith.” Mount Royal Undergraduate Humanities Review (MRUHR) 3 (2015): 112-119. Web.