Introduction
Title VII and Title IX legislation were both intended to provide relief to individuals who were suffering from some form of exclusion or discrimination. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination against any individual based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in any employment condition. In 1972, it was amended to expand its coverage to include government employees, educational institutions, and private employers of more than 15 persons.
Title VII provided for a comprehensive prohibition on acts of employment discrimination (Anthony, Kacmar, & Perrewe, 2002), and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 addressed the rights of all individuals, regardless of sex, to participate in educational programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance. In effect, Title IX required that both boys and girls have equal opportunities to participate in sports and derive the benefits of participation (National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education [NCWGE], 2002).
With the full weight of the federal government behind these two cornerstone pieces of legislation, most individuals probably think that the inequity women had faced in athletics prior to 1972 has been eliminated. The results, more than 40 years after the passage of Title VII in 1964 and 30 years after the passage of Title IX, however, indicate that the successes girls have seen under Title IX have been eclipsed by the losses women have suffered despite their supposed protection under Title VII (Acosta & Carpenter, 2002b; Chesebro, 1985; Hart, Hasbrook, & Mathes, 1986; Heishman, Bunker, & Tutwiler, 1990; Lovett & Lowry, 1994; Oliphant, 1995; Pedersen & Whisenant, 2002). The complexities of expanding participation opportunities for girls in both interscholastic and collegiate athletics have resulted in the power and control of girls’ athletics being seized by men.
Gender and Athletics
College Athletics
To date, a great deal of research associated with Title IX issues has been guided by the works of Acosta and Carpenter (2002a), who focused on college athletics. They reported that since the passage of Title IX, participation opportunities have increased dramatically for female athletes. The number of female student athletes grew from 74,239 in 1981 to 150,916 in 2001. Women increased from 24.2 to 41.9% of the student athlete population (Bray, 2002). Female coaches and administrators, however, have not fared as well at their athletes.
Acosta and Carpenter (2002b) noted that prior to the enactment of Title IX, 90% of the women’s teams had female head coaches. Thirty years later, in 2002, however, only 44% of the coaches were women. Women’s management of women’s programs has shown an even deeper decline. In 1972, women managed 90% of the women’s programs. By 2002, the number of programs being managed by a woman dropped under 20% (Whisenant, Pedersen, & Obenour, 2002). In addition, only 16.9% of the programs had a women serving as the head athletic director, despite the fact that 41.9% of the athletes (DeHass, 2002) participating in intercollegiate athletics were women.
High School Athletes
As with collegiate sports, the effects of Title IX on high school interscholastic athletics have been mixed for girls. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFSHSA, 2002) reported that in 1971, prior to the passage of Title IX, the number of boys participating in high school athletics was approximately 3.7 million. At that same time, there were 294,015 girls participating in athletics. An immediate impact on girls’ participation rates was evident in the 1972-73 school year wherein the number of girls participating rose nearly threefold to 817,073. By the end of the 1977-78 school year, the number of girls participating in high school athletics had risen to over 2 million, a level that would not be seen again until the 1993-94 school year.
Girls, who comprised only 7.4% of the student athletes prior to Title IX passage, represented 32.3% of the student athletes by the end of the 1977-78 school year. The total number of student athletes, boys and girls, participating in interscholastic athletics at that time had risen by 62.8% to over 6.4 million; girls accounted for 72% of that growth. During the following 15 years, 1978-79 to 1992-93, the number of girls participating in athletics fell below 2 million.
Girls averaged 1.8 million (34.6%) of all high school student athletes. By the end of the 2000-01 academic school year, the NFHS reported that total athletic participation had increased for 12 consecutive years (“Athletic Participation,” 2001). Girls’ participation rates had increased for 18 of the previous 19 years to approximately 2.8 million, and girls accounted for 41.5% of all interscholastic student athletes by the end of the 2000-01 school year. Framed within the context of girls’ participation, Title IX appears to be a success.
Beyond the playing field, however, the effects of Title IX on the women who coached and managed girls’ interscholastic sports appear to have been unsettling. Studies that have focused on interscholastic athletics have demonstrated how men have dominated the coaching positions for girls’ sports (Chesebro, 1985; Hart, Hasbrook, & Mathes, 1986; Lovett & Lowry, 1994). A few studies have addressed the plight of female interscholastic athletic directors (ADs) and athletic administrators (Heishman, Bunker, & Tutwiler, 1990; Pedersen & Whisenant, 2002).
Heishman, Bunker, and Tutwiler (1990), found that the number of female ADs in Virginia had declined in numbers from 187 to 60 over a 15-year period, 1971-72 to 1986-87. During that timeframe, the number of administrator positions declined from 458 to 382, a 17% decrease. The number of women in those positions declined at an accelerated rate of 68%, to 15.7% of the administrator positions. One positive finding was that the number of female ADs rose from.4% in 1971-72 to 6.5% in 1986-87. Overall, however, they found that the number of sports directors was declining, and there was a significant decline in the number of female administrators and coaches.
Other sources of data have indirectly shown the gender inequity in interscholastic athletics administration (Lovett & Lowry, 1994; Oliphant, 1995; Whisenant, 2001). Oliphant (1995) used a modified version of the collegiate gender-equity survey (38% response rate) to conduct a gender-equity study of high schools in the state of Iowa. The findings indicated that 98.1% of the ADs who responded were men. Lovett and Lowry’s study (Lovett & Lowry, 1994) of administrative structures in Texas schools indicated only 2% of the ADs in Texas were women.
Raw data collected for a study of Florida and Texas ADs (Whisenant, 2001) indicated that 6% of the ADs in Texas and 13% in Florida were women. The National Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Association’s 2001-2002 NIAAA National Directory of State Athletic Director Associations (NIAAA, 2002) listed the officers and key personnel who were associated with each state’s high school athletic director association.
An attempt to infer the sex of the individuals listed in the directory by their first names suggests that only 12% of the state association presidents were women, and 12% of the individuals serving as state liaisons for the NIAAA were women. The disparity is also evident at the national level, whereby the NIAAA’s own Board of Directors is dominated by men: 11 of the 13 members. As with the states’ leadership, women’s representation was below 15%. At every level of interscholastic athletics, men appear to dominate the key power positions.
The Importance of Equity
Equal access to the power and prestige of the athletic director position is mandated for two basic reasons. First, the law requires equal access under Title VII. Second, it is the right thing to do based upon the fundamental principles of integrity, fairness, and other maxims often used to validate the existence of school-sponsored athletics. The numbers to-date suggest that in reality, the law is not being followed.
Regardless of the terminology (e.g., gender stratification, hegemony, or patriarchy) used to identify the root cause for the inequities that exist, the facts continue to support the propositions that men control athletics, and they have yet to share their power with women (Sage, 1990). The current environment is perpetuated by the systemic nature of the organizational culture by which athletics operates.
Acosta and Carpenter (1992) found that hiring decisions are influenced by the gender of the hiring decision maker. They found that female ADs had a greater percentage of female coaches in their programs (50.8%) than did male ADs (46.4%). Lovett and Lowry (1994) came to the same conclusions in their study of head coaches in Texas: women hire women, and men hire men.
The issues that arise from the male domination of athletics carry on well beyond the playing field through a process associated with Bandura’s social-cognitive theory. Bandura (1997) noted that researchers have consistently found that cultural gender stereotyping influences career choice. “Such findings suggest that gender-related efficacy impediments arise less from the discrete skills themselves than from their linkage to stereotypically male occupations” (Bandura, p. 423).
Hackett and Betz (as cited in Bandura, 1997) found that the beliefs women have with regard to their abilities and career goals were directly influenced by their families, the media, educational systems, and the culture in which they lived. Because girls see so few women in the power and leadership roles in interscholastic athletics as coaches or athletic directors, when they later make career choices, they may self-select themselves out of athletic careers. The results then, are a continuation of the perpetual cycle of male domination.
Again, this cycle is evident in data (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2002) that indicate that 34.1% of all public school principals were at one time a coach or an AD. Over half (56.1%) of the high school principals in the survey had a background in athletics. These results could help explain the findings of de Mello and Broughman (1996), who assessed the gender of high school principals across the United States. They reported that only 13.8% of the principals were women, despite the fact that 53.1% of the high school teachers were women.
Snyder and Hoffman (2002) reported that 42.9% of all high school seniors participated in athletics, and 30.3% of all senior girls participated in athletics. With high school athletics playing such a high impact role in the lives of so many young girls, the absence of female role models in the power positions may be sending girls the message that athletics is not a viable career choice for women. The purpose of this study was to assess the magnitude of the male control over interscholastic athletics, which would provide insight into how well women have faired under Title IX at the interscholastic level, not as participants or coaches, but beyond the playing field into the offices of athletic administrators.
Research Questions
The research questions addressed in this study were:
- To what extent did men dominate the administration of interscholastic athletics as evidenced by the gender composition of interscholastic athletic administrators within each state’s athletic director associations?
- To what extent did the gender composition of state athletic director associations differ regionally across the United States?
Method
Each state’s interscholastic athletic administrators association was contacted by e-mail. The associations were asked if their state’s AD association had demographic data on its members, and, if so, whether they would provide the researcher with the number of male and female members. Whenever the e-mail was returned undelivered, the following predetermined contact sequence was followed:
- (a) the President of the state athletic administrators association as noted in the NIAAA National Directory of State Leadership,
- (b) the NIAAA Liaison for each state,
- (c) the President of each state’s coaches association as listed on the website of the National High School Coaches Association.
To determine if gender differences existed regionally, the states were grouped into five regions: West, Midwest, Great Lakes, Northeast, or Southeast. The regional groupings matched the state groupings used by the NFHS on its website.
Results
Twenty-six of the 50 state associations contacted responded to the request for the gender composition of their membership. Of those that responded, 22 state associations provided the requested information. Four states indicated the data were not available. All five of the regions had representative data for analysis. The 22 state associations reported a membership level of 7041 interscholastic athletic administrators or athletic directors.
Of those members, 6142 were men (87%) and 899 were women (13%). The first research question sought to determine the extent to which men dominated the administration of interscholastic athletics as evidenced by the gender composition of interscholastic athletic administrators within each state’s athletic director association. A chi-square test was used to compare group frequencies between men and women. The difference was significant; men outnumbered women, [chi square](1, N = 7041) = 3904, p <.001.
The second question sought to determine if the gender composition of state athletic director associations differed regionally across the United States. The men/women composition of the regions was as follows: West 83/17%, Midwest 93/7%, Great Lakes 88/12%, Northeast 84/16%, and Southeast 88/12%. Gender comparisons were made utilizing an analysis of variance. The findings indicated that there were no significant differences in the percentage of women in each state’s association when the memberships were compared on a regional basis, F(4, 17) = 1.858, p =.164.
Discussion
The results of this study indicate that although more girls are playing more athletics, they are playing in programs controlled by men. Since the passage of Title IX, girls can play the games, but women are not allowed to control the games. As girls become women, they relinquish control of their sports to men. As with intercollegiate athletics, men have gained control and maintain the power over interscholastic athletics. The pattern of male domination of athletics is evident in the fact that 87% of the athletic administrators at the local and state levels were men. Furthermore, the inequity is not limited geographically within the United States. In all regions, women are apparently subjected to job discrimination in interscholastic athletics administration.
These findings are disturbing when we consider the gains women have made in the private sector. In the business community, the U.S. Department of Labor reported (as cited in Bajdo & Dickson, 2001) that in 1997 women held 40% of the management positions within American businesses. However, they only held 3-5% of the top executive positions. Within the public school structure, the AD’s position can be aligned with that of a manager, in that the school district’s superintendent can be considered the top executive. Given that structure, women in interscholastic athletics lag far behind their peers in other management fields.
Several remedies recommended by Kandel (1995) to address inequities in the private sector are well suited for use in interscholastic athletics. Women involved with the administration of interscholastic athletics should not be pigeonholed into positions that do not have professional development opportunities or do not logically lead to advancement with greater responsibilities and visibility. Job openings should be effectively communicated in a manner that reaches women. For example, the Texas High School Coaches Association website posts jobs for coaches and ADs. Although the Texas Girls’ Coaches Association website listed 25 jobs on September 19, 2002, none of them were for administrative positions. Professional development and training opportunities should be exploited by women to enhance their credentials.
Programs such as the NIAAA’s certification program enables current administrators and women who seek to move into the field of interscholastic athletics administration to make up ground lost to men who have already acquired AD positions; the program provides the opportunity to be certified as a Registered Athletic Administrator (RAA), Certified Athletic Administrator (CAA), and Certified Master Athletic Administrator (CMAA). Involvement in organizations and associations such as The National Association for Girls and Women in Sport and the Womens Sports Foundation can also assist women in building both professional and social networks which can lead to advanced career opportunities in sport administration. Although several suggested remedies have been mentioned, further research is need to explore fully any systemic barriers that may be in place that deny women access to these positions. One key question that needs to be addressed is: how many women apply for positions that are awarded to men?
A byproduct of the continued inequity in interscholastic athletics is the perpetuation of myths associated with gender differences in management. The absence of highly visible women in key leadership roles will negatively influence how girls and boys perceive women in the work place. Boys will grow up with the perception that successful managers are required to have characteristics, attitudes, and temperaments more associated with men than women (Schein, Mueller, Litucy, & Liu, 1996).
These boys who will become men in the workplace may also not look upon women with favor when making judgments of them as managers (Deal & Stevenson, 1998). In addition, many girls may abandon career pursuits associated with athletics because of the absence of a network of women to serve as role models and mentors. The ultimate outcome of this pervasive discrimination will be the perpetual cycle of male domination in interscholastic athletics.
As more women gain entry into the AD ranks, they will be able to form gender friendly networks and act as mentors to those women who will follow in their footsteps. Women in the leadership roles will also be able to serve as role models for both boys and girls, thereby demonstrating that sex does not predetermine managerial success. Title IX has benefited girls by increasing their participation opportunities, however it is evident that those gains were made at the expense of women’s rights to employment under Title VII. With 14,505 school districts and over 20,000 high schools (NCES, 2002) in the public school systems across the nation, opportunity to advance abounds.
References
Acosta, V., & Carpenter, L. (1992). Women in intercollegiate sport. A longitudinal study–Fifteen year update, 1977-1990. Unpublished manuscript. Brooklyn College, New York.
Acosta, V., & Carpenter, L. (2002a). Women in intercollegiate sport: A longitudinal study – Twenty five year update 1977-2002. Web.
Acosta, V., & Carpenter, L. (2002b). Status of women as administrators. Web.
Anthony, W., Kacmar, K., & Perrewe, P. (2002). Human resource management: A strategic approach (4th sed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers.
Athletic participation increases for 12th straight year. (2001). NFHS News, 19(3), p. 4.
Bajdo, L., & Dickson, M. (2001). Perceptions of organizational culture and women’s advancement in organizations: A cross-cultural examination. Sex Roles, 45, 399-414.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Bray, C. (2002). NCAA year-by-year sports participation 1982-2001. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association.
Chesebro, P. (1985). High school women coaches and athletic directors: Diminishing numbers. Illinois Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 20, 7-9.
Deal, J., & Stevenson, M. (1998). Perceptions of female and male managers in the 1990s: Plus ca change… Sex Roles, 38, 287-300.
DeHass, D. (2002). 1999-00 NCAA gender equity report. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association.
de Mello, V., & Broughman, S. (1996). SAS by state 1993-94 schools and staffing survey: Selected results (NCES 96-312). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Hart, B., Hasbrook, C., & Mathes, S. (1986). An examination of the reduction in the number of female interscholastic coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57, 68-77.
Heishman, M., Bunker, L., & Tutwiler, R. (1990). The decline of women leaders (coaches and athletic directors) in girls’ interscholastic sport programs in Virginia from 1972 to 1987. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 103-107.
Kandel, W. (1995). Affirmative action and the glass ceiling: Contract compliance and litigation avoidance. Employee Relations Law Journal, 21, 109-118.
Lovett, D., & Lowry, C. (1994). “Good old boys” and “good old girls” clubs: Myth or reality? Journal of Sport Management, 8, 27-35.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Schools and staffing survey, 1999-2000: Overview of the data for public, private, public charter, and bureau of Indian affairs elementary and secondary schools. (NCES 2002-313). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education (NCGWE). (2002). Title IX athletic policies: Issues and data for education decision makers. Washington, DC.
National Federation of State High School Associations (NFSHSA). (2002). National federation of state high school associations participation study 1971-01. Indianapolis.
National Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Association (NIAAA). (2002). NIAAA national directory of state athletic director associations.
Oliphant, J. (1995). Iowa high schools athletic gender-equity study. Web.
Pedersen, P., & Whisenant, W. (2002). Successful when given the opportunity: Investigating gender representation and success rates of interscholastic athletic directors. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Sage. G. (1990). Power and ideology in American sport: A critical perspective. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.
Schein, V., Mueller, R., Lituchy, T., & Liu, J. (1996). Think manager-Think male: A global phenomenon? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17, 33-41.
Snyder, T, & Hoffman, C. (2002). Digest of education statistics, 2001. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Whisenant, W. (2001). [Athletic director demographics]. Unpublished raw data.
Whisenant, W., Pedersen, E, & Obenour, B. (2002). Success and gender: Determining the rate of advancement of intercollegiate athletic directors. Sex Roles, 47, 485-491.