Impact of On-Board Drills and Seafarers’ Resting Hours and Fatigue Thesis

Abstract

Accidents at sea are a major concern for both ship captains and naval authorities. While human error is a leading cause, this can typically be reduced through on-board drills. However, there is a risk that excessive training may cause fatigue among the crew, which ironically contributes significantly to increased human errors. This study, therefore, aims to investigate the relationship between on-board drills and seafarers’ rest hours, specifically as perceived by UK marine officers. The primary goal is to determine whether these drills have a significant impact on the quality of rest for crew members.

The study utilizes a quantitative correlational design to achieve the purpose. A sample of 180 naval officers from UK ships was recruited to collect the data. A self-created questionnaire was used to measure the quality of rest hours and the intensity of on-board training. Two regression models were assessed to determine if the correlation between the variables was significant. The study’s results demonstrated that on-board drills had a considerable impact on the quality of rest hours among UK seafarers. This implies that marine officers must ensure they follow both work hour regulations and on-board drill regulations carefully to minimize the number of accidents at sea.

Introduction

Problem Statement and General Approach

The problem of accidents at sea is a significant bother for captains in the naval forces around the globe. Accidents at sea remain unacceptably high despite technological development (Maritime Accident Fatalities in the EU, 2022). These accidents lead to a significant number of casualties among seafarers (Wang et al., 2021). According to Kum and Sahin (2015), there are numerous causes of naval accidents, including inadequacy of policies and ship defects. However, the central cause of accidents around the world and in the UK in particular remains human error (Hasanspahić et al., 2021).

The marine transport sector can be hazardous due to its vulnerability to various potential hazards, including ship grounding, capsizing, vessel sinking, fire, explosions, and pirate attacks. Risk analysis of incidents of vessel or cargo damage and loss, injuries, and deaths ranks the sea as the most hazard-prone environment (Lu & Tsai, 2008). Considering that harsh weather conditions in the marine environment can impede external help during an emergency (Burciu et al., 2020), the need for self-sufficiency and emergency preparedness cannot be overstated for seafarers.

In marine transport, training and drills have traditionally been regarded as the most effective means of equipping seafarers with the skills necessary for the efficient accomplishment of their duties and the reduction of mishaps (Shemon, Hasan, and Kadir, 2019). In the Republic of Korea alone, navigator error was attributed to 79% of all incidents in the past five years (Rip, 2018). However, intense training through on-board drills may lead to increased fatigue among naval officers. Recent research demonstrated that the central cause of human error in UK ships was fatigue (Apostol-Mates & Barbu, 2019). Thus, to understand the human causes of human error, it is vital to investigate the relationship between fatigue on board and the exercises required of seafarers.

This study focuses on the analysis of the effect of on-board drills on the resting hours of seafarers. In particular, the study employs a correlational design to investigate the relationship between on-board drills and the quality of rest hours of UK marine officers. The central research question this study attempts to answer is:

RQ1: How do on-board drills affect the resting hours of seafarers according to the opinions of UK marine officers?

The research question was answered using a qualitative research design. In particular, a regression model was created to determine the effect of on-board drills on the quality of resting hours after controlling for age and gender. The data were collected using a self-created questionnaire and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Research Aims and Objectives

This study aims to explore the relationship between on-board drills and the resting hours of seafarers, as perceived by UK marine officers. In other words, the purpose of this study is to determine if on-board drills have a significant impact on the quality of resting hours of the crewmembers. Several objectives were identified to achieve the study’s purpose.

1. Conduct a thorough literature review concerning the factors that may affect the effectiveness of the decision-making process and determine the gaps in the current literature.
2. Develop an instrument that will help to measure the variables included in the statistical model with a high degree of validity.
3. Collect and analyse data from UK marine officers to assess the effects of the on-board drills on the outcome variable.
4. Interpret the results of the analysis with regard to the current body of empirical and theoretical literature.
5. Create a list of recommendations for marine officers to reduce fatigue among crewmembers and, hence, reduce the occurrence of accidents at sea.

Structure of the Thesis

This thesis comprises eight major sections, each subdivided into subsections. The first section provides an overview of the problem, its aims, and objectives. The second section provides an overview of the study’s background, drawing on relevant academic literature on the subject. The third section presents the hypotheses derived from the findings of previous studies. The fourth section describes the methods used to achieve the study’s purpose, including sampling, data collection, and data analysis processes.

Following this, the paper presents the detailed results of the data analysis, accompanied by figures, tables, and their corresponding narrative interpretations. The sixth section presents interpretations of the results in the context of previous studies. The seventh section provides a brief conclusion that includes the major findings of the study. Recommendations for future studies and suggestions for naval officers on decreasing the fatigue levels of crew members are provided in the final section of the study.

Background

This section provides an overview of the literature relevant to the problem under analysis. The purpose of the section is to understand the gaps in knowledge in the current body of knowledge and form hypotheses that guide the analysis.

Definitions of the Constructs

This section entails a definition of two constructs around which this review is centred. Drills in the marine transport context refer to methods of practicing how crew members should behave during an emergency (Dragomir & Utureanu, 2016). Baksh et al. (2018) viewed risk assessment and readiness for eventualities as a promising way to ensure that those involved respond appropriately. Thus, drills are emergency practices used to minimize hazards in case of emergency situations at sea and to assess the readiness of crew members to such situations.

The importance of training notwithstanding, crew members need sufficient rest to replenish their energy and perform optimally. It is common for “rest hour” to be presumed similar to and used interchangeably with “work break,” but they mean different things. According to the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), rest hours on board refer to the period a seafarer is relieved of duty, excluding the short breaks during normal work hours (Jinoo et al., 2017). This definition suggests that work breaks differ from rest hours in that they are shorter and typically taken while an individual is still on duty. Thus, rest hours are known as the planned time off duty while at sea.

Standards Regulating Drills/Training and Seafarers’ Resting Hours

While reviewing drills and training on board ship, Dragomir and Utureanu (2016) recognized the International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) as the most crucial treaty regarding maritime transport security. SOLAS 1974, which came into force around mid-1980, requires all its over 165 contracting states to comply with specific minimum safety standards for the construction, equipment, and operation of merchant ships. The Convention, created by the IMO, further entails specific mandatory drills that a vessel must perform to enhance voyage safety and security.

Complying with regulatory requirements can easily overwhelm seafarers with training and drills. Table 1 below presents just a summary of current drilling regulations according to SOLAS’s latest requirements. It is constructed with special attention to, where applicable, how frequently these drills are required.

Table 1. SOLAS on-board drills requirements

Adapted from SOLAS (1974).

According to the International Labour Organisation’s Maritime Labour Notice (MLN) Regulations, all seafarers are entitled to at least 10 hours of rest in any 24-hour period, which translates to a minimum of 77 hours per week (MLN 2.3, n.d.). They further require scheduling firefighting, musters, and lifeboat drills such that they do not induce fatigue or disturb rest. The guidelines further recommend providing compensatory rest hours whenever duty interferes with normal break time. However, the persistence of accidents in the marine transport sector, despite a long list of rules and regulations emphasizing training and drills, suggests a gap in knowledge and practice.

Thus, it may be stated that the regulations concerning drill and rest hours are very strict. At the same time, it should be noted that the requirements for on-board training are extensive, which may interfere with the daily schedules of crew members. As a result, marine officers may tend to use the rest hours of the crewmembers for on-board drills. The studies that describe the non-compliance with rest hour regulations are discussed below.

Non-Compliance with Rest Hour Regulations

Violating the standards regulating seafarers’ hours of rest is a common practice. Accordingly, a more important question to ask is to what extent these subversions occur. In a case study of deck officers’ working and resting hours on oil tankers that navigated coastal waters, Uğurlu (2016) found gross violations of work and rest regulations.

The researcher found that first and second officers worked over 15 hours for 16 and 20 days, respectively, and rested for less than six hours within any previous 24 hours at least 79% of the time, generally breaching work and rest conventions almost always (Uğurlu, 2016, p. 11). A major shortcoming of this study is its limited focus, which excludes vessels with heavy tonnage; this makes it impossible to generalise findings to understand the severity of the violations on an industry-wide level.

A recent insider look into the normative behaviour in seafaring suggested that violations of rest hours are not widespread but are also normalised through the ‘ethos of ship first’ (Baumler, Bhatia, and Kitada, 2021). Through a qualitative research design that administered semi-structured interviews to 20 seafarers, Baumler, Bhatia, and Kitada (2021) determined that nearly all participants manipulated work and rest hours’ records to hide violations of foreign compliance [8].

Lee et al. (2021) provided further evidence of systemic adjustments to records, reporting that most crew members believed their working hours were not accurately recorded. Baumler, Bhatia, and Kitada (2021) further accused Flag State, Port State, and shipping companies of complicity in understaffing ships and conditioning seafarers to endure unfavourable work conditions to protect the ship first. This source also suffers from a significant generalisability deficit due to its qualitative design and small sample.

A quantitative study involving 284 participants drawn from maritime universities and over 40 companies investigated problems encountered during on-board training and how they were managed (Lee et al., 2021). Lee et al. (2021) found that the respondents lacked sufficient rest time and personal protective equipment. The authors found that all but 21% of the cadets worked more than 8 hours a day (Lee et al., 2021).

An intriguing revelation of this study is that training occurred outside normal work schedules and was used to get the cadets to complete otherwise unpaid tasks, some of which they found uncomfortable, such as extra maintenance work and private errands (Lee et al., 2021). Although this study draws significant generalizability strength from its quantitative design, its choice of participants may not accurately reflect the European marine work environment.

In summary, it should be noted that despite strict regulations on on-board rest hours, violations are common around the globe. Although the studies described above have some shortcomings, they suggest that seafarers may experience increased fatigue due to insufficient rest.

Effect of Drills on Rest Hours

Fatigue is one of the central problems among seafarers that affects the number of accidents at sea (Apostol-Mates & Barbu, 2019; Hasanspahić et al., 2021; Kum & Sahin, 2015). Allen, Wardsworth, and Smith (2007) stated that there are numerous strategies that can be used to reduce fatigue, including economic mechanisms, legislation, work hour regulations, and automation. Even though rest hours of seafarers are strictly regulated, studies suggest that the regulations are commonly violated due to drills (Baumler, Bhatia, and Kitada, 2021; Lee et al., 2021; Uğurlu, 2016). Allen, Wardsworth, and Smith (2007) suggest that adhering to work hour regulations is crucial for reducing the level of fatigue among seafarers. Therefore, it can be concluded that drills have a decremental effect on the rest hours of crewmembers.

On-board training sessions can elicit detrimental impacts that diminish the quality of crews’ rest periods. A prime example is the emotional or physical injuries sustained from sexual harassment and abuse during drills. As can be inferred from Acas’s (2021) definition, any unwanted behaviour of sexual nature that offends, intimidates, humiliates, degrades, or violates the dignity of someone constitutes sexual harassment. If this conduct occurs at least once without the recipient’s consent or full understanding and harms them in any way, then it qualifies as abuse [9]. Conversely, studies have found that on-board training can be rife with sexual harassment against mostly female seafarers (Lee et al., 2021), perpetrated predominantly by their male counterparts (Tangi, 2020).

In a comprehensive mixed-methods study conducted as part of the Gender Empowerment and Multicultural Crew Project with participants drawn from China, Nigeria, and the UK, Pike et al. (2021) found that cadets expected to encounter sexual harassment during training. These fears were confirmed after embarking on the first training, when about one in six women working at sea experienced or witnessed sexual harassment (Pike et al., 2021). Despite a comprehensive approach tinged with a global view, the study does not illuminate the impact of the challenges it identifies on hours of rest. Moreover, its exclusive focus on female seafarers, whom the authors note only account for 2% of seafarers globally, undermines its external validity.

Another way to understand the overarching implications of on-board drills and training is to consider them within the context of the precarious marine environment. During voyages, seafarers have to operate peculiar on-board equipment while enduring the risk of falling overboard and other potential triggers of many traumatic and psycho-emotional conditions (Dachev & Lazarov, 2015). Moreover, seafarers could suffer from ultraviolet deficiency, seasickness, overheating or overcooling of the body, and other adverse health effects due to the hydro-meteorological conditions of the marine environment (Dachev & Lazarov, 2015).

Conscious of these dangers, Dachev and Lazarov (2015) warned that prolonged exposure to the dangerous work conditions at sea could lead to chronic illnesses, affecting seafarers’ quality of life ashore. Although this study recommends more training and awareness as potential ways of mitigating these health risks, it fails to consider how the potentially degraded health of seafarers could affect their rest hours.

Another potential negative impact of drills and training is fatigue. Mounting evidence indicates exhaustion as a risk factor for undesirable injuries and accidents, including ship grounding (Galieriková, Dávid, and Sosedová, 2020; Hawley, 2019; Paolo et al., 2021). Recent studies have further demonstrated a positive association between excessive work demands, including working under vigilance demands and time pressure, and chronic fatigue (Andrei et al., 2020; Galieriková, Dávid & Sosedová, 2020).

In their recent descriptive study, Jinoo et al. (2017) assessed the effectiveness of MLN Regulations on Work and Rest Hours from the experience of cadets and seafarers working on board international vessels. They discovered that, for cadets, the MLN regulations provided little guarantee for leisure. Cadets had to apportion some of their rest hours for training, studying, and mandatory drills (Jinoo et al., 2017). Of the studies hitherto reviewed, Jinoo and colleagues present plausible evidence suggesting that training and drills deny cadets’ valuable time to restore energy after busy periods on board, potentially increasing the chances of occupational hazards. However, the study’s descriptive quantitative design undermines its ability to determine in-depth employee experiences regarding the impact of drills and training on rest hours, subject to MLN regulations.

Some scholars have rejected the suggestion that excessive training and drills cause fatigue. Rather, they argue that fatigue is one of the many factors that hinder compliance with regulatory requirements on on-board drills, hence the enduring lack of emergency preparedness and the eventual ineffective response to disasters (Tac, Akyuz, and Celik, 2020). Validating this view, Van Cutsem et al. (2017) explained that physical and mental fatigue decreases motivation, mental concentration, and alertness.

Tac, Akyuz, and Celik (2020) concluded that while rules are sufficient in number, they have not succeeded in enhancing emergency preparedness due to implementation deficiencies. The high prevalence of fatigue among seafarers is a prime indicator 11 that rest is a limiting factor in this environment. Yet the reviewed literature suggests that denying crewmembers sufficient time to relax and regain energy instigates cascading consequences.

Gap in Knowledge

The background scientific review has revealed some interesting insights regarding the study area. It has been shown that credible research has significantly contributed to unpacking the convoluted interplay of rules and regulations, seafarers’ well-being, and safety in the maritime industry. However, it is concerning that on-board training as a potential threat to crewmembers’ well-being has eluded the attention of many researchers.

A possible explanation for this continued lack of attention is the general assumption that training and drills aim at enhancing the safety of everyone on board, including the participating seafarers. Few researchers have been intrigued by the excessive fatigue to which training and drills subject crew members. It is also possible that most decision makers are detached from the on-board reality of seafarers, thereby impeding their ability to understand how drills could be the prime culprit in perpetuating fatigue, thereby jeopardising ship safety.

Besides the skewed understanding of the effectiveness of drills, few studies attempt to understand why it is so difficult to allow seafarers enough time to recover from their exacting job requirements. Notably, it would be challenging to give a crewmember at least ten hours of rest per day when a ship is undermanned in the first place. Research by BIMCO/ISF (2016) indicates that the global maritime industry faces a shortfall of 16,500 seafarers and projects the workforce shortage to increase to approximately 147,000 by 2025. However, scholars have challenged the reliability of BIMCO/ISF findings, citing methodological flaws (Tang & Bhattacharya, 2021).

For example, Tang and Bhattacharya (2021) presented counterexamples showing that there is a workforce oversupply. Tang further recommended focusing on providing quality training instead of 12 spreading resources and efforts thinly to expand training capacities. Despite the apparent lack of consensus on whether there is a labour shortage in the seafaring industry, it is clear that seafarers face serious training challenges, which also affect their well-being. The proposed research will thus offer a comprehensive view of the problem by appreciating that the lack of sufficient rest among seafarers is a confluence of many factors, including on-board training and drills.

The general thrust of the reviewed literature stresses the importance of training for the on-board crew. However, a paucity of knowledge exists regarding the impact of these drills on crewmembers’ hours of rest. Accordingly, the proposed study aims to explore the underlying effects of the vaunted training and drills on seafarers’ on-board rest periods. The collected data will also be subjected to a t-test to validate hypotheses and enable further in-depth analysis that will inform the project’s overarching conclusion.

Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a crucial part of any quantitative research, as it sets the path towards answering the research question. A hypothesis is understood as a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested using statistical methods (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019). A hypothesis serves as a starting point that a researcher can use for further investigation (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019). A hypothesis is typically based on the results of previous research or an established theoretical framework.

Previous research has demonstrated that, although on-board drills are crucial for reducing the number of accidents at sea, failure to adhere to rest hour regulations in favor of on-board drills may lead to increased fatigue. In particular, drills contribute to the workload of seafarers, which has a detrimental effect on their emotional and physical health (Andrei et al., 2020; Galieriková, Dávid, and Sosedová, 2020). Additionally, recent studies demonstrate that rest hour regulations are systematically violated (Baumler, Bhatia, and Kitada, 2021; Lee et al., 2021; Uğurlu, 2016). Thus, the following hypotheses were suggested:

• H0: Drills held during off-duty hours have no detrimental effect upon crewmembers’ rest hours in the UK Navy.
• HA: Drills held during off-duty hours have a significant detrimental effect upon crewmembers’ rest hours in the UK Navy.

Methodology

Research Design

A quantitative approach is the most appropriate method for the present study. According to Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2019), the use of quantitative research is appropriate when a researcher needs to test a hypothesis. Quantitative research is usually based on the results of qualitative research and provides specific answers to narrow questions (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019).

Quantitative research methods allow a high breadth of the research, as numerous participants can be involved in a study (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). However, questions that are answered by quantitative research are to be very specific. At the same time, quantitative research does not allow for acquiring in-depth insights from the analysis, as the research design does not aim to explain facts derived from the analysis.

The alternatives to the selected approach were using a qualitative approach or a mixed-method approach. Qualitative research is based on in-depth, unstructured data received from observation, interviews, or focus groups (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019). Qualitative research usually aims at analysing the lived experiences of participants to acquire in-depth knowledge about a phenomenon (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019).

A mixed-method approach presupposes the use of both qualitative and quantitative research methods to compensate for the limitations of using them separately (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). However, the use of qualitative or mixed-methods approaches goes beyond the purpose of this study, as the research aimed to test the relationship between two variables. Therefore, it was decided to conduct a quantitative correlational study to answer the research question by testing the hypothesis.

Population and Sampling

The population under analysis consisted of UK marine officers, as the purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between on-board drills and the resting hours of UK marine officers. According to the Ministry of Defence (2021), a maximum of 38,900 officers were to be maintained for service in the regular naval and marine forces in 2021-2022. Thus, 38,900 was assumed as the population size for calculating the appropriate sample size.

The inclusion criteria were men and women serving in the UK Navy and having access to the internet for an online survey. The exclusion criterion was serving in the Navy for less than six months, as it was assumed that experience of less than six months would be associated with increased bias. It was decided to recruit at least 150 participants for data collection. The rationale behind the target number is to secure an appropriate margin of error. A margin of error is the degree of uncertainty that your survey results might have (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018).

The larger the margin of error, the more likely the true results are to be further away from the estimated numbers (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2019). It was decided to aim at having a margin of error no higher than 8% with a 95% confidence level. According to SurveyMonkey (n.d.), a sample size of 150 can secure a margin of error of 5% and a confidence level of 95%. Thus, a sample of 150 participants was a minimal target. However, the researcher aimed to have as many participants as possible to minimize the margin of error and enhance the reliability of the findings.

Simple random sampling was used to secure the needed sample size. Simple random sampling gives every representative of the population an equal chance to participate in a study. Such an approach to recruitment is associated with a low level of selection bias, which is crucial for improving the reliability of results. Convenience sampling was considered as an alternative due to the researcher’s limited ability to secure the required sample size. However, it was decided to avoid using this sampling method, as selection bias was a significant concern due to the low sample size.

Variables and Instruments

The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between on-board drills and the resting hours of UK marine officers. Thus, the two central variables under analysis include on-board drills (‘Drills’) and resting hours. Resting hours were seen as the period when officers are relieved from duty, excluding the short breaks during normal work hours. The variable of resting hours was the dependent variable describing the quality of resting hours as perceived by the participants. On-board drills were considered an independent variable and measured in terms of their length, frequency, and intensity.

The study also aimed to measure two additional variables, including gender and age. These variables were the control variables, as it was assumed that age and gender may have a significant effect on the overall endurance of the participants, which may have affected the measurements of the dependent and the independent variables. A self-created questionnaire was created by the researcher to measure the variables.

The control variables were measured using multiple-choice questions, while the dependent and independent variables were measured using 5-point Likert scale questions. For measuring the dependent and independent variables, the participants were asked to rate how the agreed to the provided statements on a scale from 1 to 5, where ‘5’ stood for ‘agree’, ‘4’ stood for ‘somewhat agree’, ‘3’ stood for ‘neither agree nor disagree’, ‘2’ stood for ‘somewhat disagree’, and ‘1’ stood for ‘disagree’. The questionnaire included 10 questions, implying that it required participants to complete the survey in no more than five minutes, which was associated with a high response rate. The description of the questionnaire is provided in the table below.

Table 2. Questionnaire Description.

Data Collection Process

The participants were randomly selected from the internal lists of marine officers. The participants were contacted using the available contact information (direct messages, email, or WhatsApp) and offered to participate in the study. The initial letter outlined the purpose of the study and what was expected of potential participants who agreed to respond to the questionnaire. After receiving a preliminary agreement, the participants were sent links to the survey. The data was collected automatically using SurveyMonkey.

All the collected information was stored on SurveyMonkey’s server until the survey was completed. As soon as the required number of responses was acquired, the data collection procedure was stopped. All the data was downloaded to a laptop protected by a password. The collected information did not contain any personal data as an additional measure of protection. After the data was downloaded, it was cleaned and analyzed using the methods described below in this paper.

Data Analysis

The data was analyzed using SPSS version 25. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the sample and assess the assumptions of multiple regression analysis. For inferential statistics, two regression models were assessed, one with and one without the control variables. There are two primary methods used for correlating numeric data, which are Pearson’s correlation analysis and linear regression analysis (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018).

The primary benefit of Pearson’s correlation analysis is its ease of interpretation. However, Pearson’s correlation analysis is rarely used, as it does not allow for the quantification of the effect of multiple independent variables on a single dependent variable (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018). Thus, it was decided to use regression analysis. The following two models were tested:

Rest Hours = β₀ + β₁ * Drills + ϵ

Rest Hours = β₀ + β₁ * Drills + β₂ * Gender + β₃ * Age + ϵ

Ethical Considerations

The data collection procedure was in accordance with the requirements of the institutional ethics committee. First, all the participants were informed that there would be no negative consequences of denying participation in the study. The instructions for the survey also stated that the participants could withdraw from the study by simply closing the browser window. No informed, formal consent was obtained from the participants, as the primary data collection method was an anonymous survey. Since the survey did not collect any sensitive or personal data, obtaining an informed consent form was not a necessary requirement. However, all participants were informed that the collected data would be securely stored on a cloud server and deleted as soon as the study’s purpose was achieved.

Results

Sample Characteristics

A description of the sample is beneficial for analyzing the reliability of results, as it can help determine if selection or response bias were significant issues. The final sample consisted of 180 respondents, among whom 22 (12.2%) were females, and 158 (87.8%) were males. At the same time, it may appear that females were poorly represented in the sample. However, the percentage of female naval officers in the UK was 13%, which suggests that gender representation was not a significant issue in the study.

The participants were divided into five age groups. The sample included 22 participants aged between 18 and 24, 59 participants aged between 25 and 34, 48 participants aged between 35 and 44, 38 participants between 45 and 54, and 18 participants aged 55 and above. The age distribution of the participants is summarized in Figure 1.

The purpose of discussing descriptive statistics in this study is two-fold. On the one hand, descriptive statistics enable the reader to gain a comprehensive understanding of the data collected from the participants. In other words, descriptive statistics summarize the distribution of variables, which can help both the researcher and the reader identify correlations between different variables (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018).

On the other hand, descriptive statistics help to test the distribution of variables for normality. According to McClaive, Benson, and Sincich (2018), normality is one of the central assumptions of regression analysis, ensuring the reliability of findings. Assessment of the distributions’ kurtosis and skewness can serve as a measure for the normality of distribution, along with the Shapiro-Wilk test and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018). The descriptive statistics for the variables are provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics.

The mean value of the effect of on-board drills was 11.96 with a standard deviation of 3.81. The scores varied between the maximum of 20 and the minimum of 4. The distribution was slightly positively skewed, with a skewness of 0.1, and platykurtic, with kurtosis = -0.69. Since skewness was within the acceptable range of [-2; 2] and kurtosis was within the acceptable range of [-7; 7], the descriptive statistics demonstrated no evidence of violation of the assumption of normality of this variable (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018).

The average score for the impact of rest hour quality was 12.16, with a standard deviation of 3.52. Scores ranged widely, from a minimum of 4 to a maximum of 20. The data distribution was observed to be slightly negatively skewed (skewness = 0.17) and platykurtic (kurtosis = −0.55). Since both the skewness (within the acceptable range of [−2;2]) and kurtosis (within the acceptable range of [−7;7]) fell within accepted limits (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018), the assumption of normality for this variable was not violated. The distributions of variables are visualised in Figures 2 and 3.

Scales for measuring both variables were tested for reliability using Cronbach’s alpha. This test helps researchers measure the internal consistency, or how closely the items are related as a group (McClaive et al., 2018). The higher the Cronbach’s alpha score, the higher the scale’s reliability (McClaive et al., 2018). The reliability of the drills variable, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.668, while the score for rest hours was 0.512. Cronbach’s alpha scores demonstrated that the reliability of measurements may be a significant issue.

Hypothesis Testing

The hypotheses were tested using two regression models: one that included control variables, and the second that did not. The results of regression analyses are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4. Regression analysis results.

*Dependent variable: Rest Hours.

The results of the analysis of both models demonstrated that the null hypothesis should be rejected, while the alternate hypothesis should be accepted, as the p-values for the independent variable in both models were statistically significant (p < 0.001). The predictive abilities of both models were moderate, with adjusted R2 coefficients at approximately 0.53. This implies that approximately 53% of the variations in the dependent variable can be attributed to fluctuations in the independent variable. The correlation between the variables was negative, as the coefficients for the independent variable were negative. The second model also demonstrated that neither gender nor age was a significant predictor of the quality of rest hours.

Assumptions

Several assumptions of the regression model should be tested before accepting the results. The first assumption of regression analysis is normality of the variables, which means that all variables should be normally distributed (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018). The analysis of descriptive statistics revealed that the variables were normally distributed, which implies that the assumption of normality was not violated.

The second assumption of regression is linearity, which assumes that the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable is linear. To test the assumption, a scatterplot was created to examine the pattern of the relationship between the variables. The scatterplot is provided in the figure below. The analysis demonstrated that the relationship between the variables was linear, as indicated by the scatterplot, which resembled an ascending line. Therefore, it may be stated that the assumption of linearity was not violated.

The final assumption of multiple linear regression is homoscedasticity, which means that the residuals should be equally distributed. The assumption of homoscedasticity was tested using a standardised residual plot with a fitted line generated by SPSS. This residual plot is provided in Figure 5 below. The results demonstrate that there is no evidence of heteroscedasticity in the plot, which implies that the assumption of homoscedasticity was not violated.

Summary of Findings

The results of the analysis demonstrated a significant negative correlation between the quality of rest hours of crew members working on UK ships and the intensity of in-board drills. The results were received using the assessment of two regression models (with and without controls for age and gender). The regression models had moderate predictive ability. The analysis of the sample demonstrated no sign of selection or representation bias, and the assessment of assumptions revealed no violations. However, it should be noted that the reliability of scales was questionable, as demonstrated by low Cronbach’s alpha scores.

Analysis and Discussion

Analysis of Results

The results of this study provided empirical evidence that there is a negative correlation between on-board drills and the quality of resting hours. The coefficients for ‘drills’ were negative and statistically significant (p < 0.001) in both regression models, demonstrating that the higher the intensity of on-board drills, the lower the quality of rest hours of seafarers on UK ships. Although the created model did not test for causation, it can be assumed that a causal relationship exists between the variables. The quality of rest hours is affected by the workload of seafarers (Andrei et al., 2020; Galieriková, Dávid, and Sosedová, 2020).

The increase in workload leads to two issues associated with rest. On the one hand, crewmembers who work extensive hours may require more time to restore their energy (Andrei et al., 2020). Thus, even if the rest hours regulations are not violated, their perceived quality may decrease. On the other hand, an increased workload may decrease the time available for rest, which in turn reduces the ability of seafarers to replenish their energy. In simpler words, an increased workload does not leave enough time for rest, which has a negative impact on the quality of rest hours. Thus, it may be concluded that the increased on-board drills have a deteriorating effect on rest hours.

While the correlation between on-board drills and rest hours was confirmed, the correlation may be indirect. This study did not account for any confounding variables due to the simplicity of the model created. This study included only two control variables, gender and age, which were found statistically insignificant. There may be other variables that mediate the relationship between the variables.

Results of this research suggest that seafarers’ fatigue may be caused by extensive on-board drills. In other words, while this study did not directly measure the relationship between on-board drills and fatigue among seafarers, the study provided evidence that on-board drills have a deteriorating effect on the quality of rest hours, which, in turn, leads to increased fatigue.

Seafarers face significant difficulties while at sea, including ultraviolet deficiency, seasickness, overheating or hypothermia, and other adverse health effects due to the hydro-meteorological conditions of the marine environment. Additionally, seafarers face significant threats of physical and mental damage due to the threat of falling overboard (Dachev & Lazarov, 2015). Thus, having sufficient time to replenish energy is crucial for seafarers to prevent fatigue.

The results of this study also suggest that extensive on-board drills may contribute to the frequency of on-board accidents. The increased intensity of on-board drills leads to fatigue among crew members, which is a central cause of accidents at sea (Allen, Wardsworth, and Smith, 2007; Apostol-Mates & Barbu, 2019; Hasanspahić et al., 2021; Kum & Sahin, 2015). At the same time, previous research also demonstrated that on-board drills are the central method for reducing the number of accidents at sea (Shemon, Hasan, and Kadir, 2019). Thus, marine officers need to balance the number, intensity, and length of drills to minimise the possible accidents.

The results of the previous studies were inconsistent about the effect of on-board drill on the quality of rest hours among seafarers. In particular, previous research suggested that fatigue may not be a result of increased drills. Previous research suggested that fatigue was the reason crew members felt the drills were exhausting. Additionally, fatigue contributes to the decreased effectiveness of drills, resulting in an increased number of accidents (Tac, Akyuz, and Celik, 2020). This study provided evidence that on-board drills decrease the quality of rest hours, which supports the idea that inadequate schedules of on-board drills contribute to fatigue indirectly.

Strengths and Limitations

This study has a number of strengths that contribute to the reliability of findings. First, the study utilises an appropriate methodology to achieve its purpose. Selecting a quantitative cross-sectional correlational design was appropriate for testing the relationship between on-board drills and rest hours of crew members on UK ships. Second, the study addresses the problem of maritime accidents, which is one of the central concerns of sea captains worldwide.

Third, the study uses an appropriate sample to acquire valid data and achieve a low margin of error. A sample size of 180 participants allowed for a margin of error of less than 8%, which is considered acceptable for empirical studies (McClaive, Benson, and Sincich, 2018). Additionally, the researcher collected data from UK naval officers, which ensures its validity. Fourth, this research is based on a substantial review of current literature, which enables the study to close a significant knowledge gap. Therefore, the findings of this study make a significant contribution to the current body of knowledge.

There are also several limitations of the study that should be acknowledged. The acknowledgement of limitations provided in this section aims to put the research findings in context, allowing the reader to establish the validity of the scientific work and the credibility of the findings. We provide a list of limitations and a concise analysis of the potential impact on the reliability of the research findings below.

• Low reliability of the instrument. The instrument utilized for this research was self-created by the researcher. The instrument was not validated by previous research, which may affect the reliability of findings. Cronbach’s alpha score for rest hours was only 0.512, which may indicate that the study’s results are biased.
• Model simplicity. The created regression model included only one independent variable and two demographic variables that served as controls. Therefore, the results establish only a basic correlation between on-board drills and rest hours, without considering the implications for crew members’ fatigue or any possible confounding variables.
• Scope. This study focused only on the population of UK marine officers. In other words, the results of this study apply only to the UK naval forces. The results may be inapplicable to other countries due to the differences in national cultures. Therefore, the results of this study should be applied to other contexts with caution.
• Qualifications of the researcher. Although the researcher has a significant academic background, this is the first large-scale study conducted by the author. The researcher acknowledged this limitation and utilized every opportunity to consult with University authorities to minimize errors and biases that might be implied by the lack of experience in academic research.

Conclusion

On-board accidents pose a major concern for both ship captains and naval authorities. A key cause of these mishaps is human error, which can be reduced by conducting regular on-board drills. However, there’s a downside: excessive training can lead to fatigue among the crew, which is itself a significant factor in increasing human errors.

This research aimed to investigate the impact of on-board drills on the quality of a crew’s rest hours. Using a quantitative approach, the study investigated the relationship between these two factors and found a significant correlation. The findings offer empirical evidence suggesting that extensive drills can worsen the quality of rest for seafarers in the UK. This conclusion aligns with existing research on the topic.

The findings suggest that marine officers and naval force authorities should pay close attention to rest hour regulations on board. Although drills are crucial for preventing accidents at sea, increased time spent on drills may lead to fatigue among crew members. Since fatigue is one of the most frequent reasons for human error, it may be concluded that on-board drills may have a two-fold effect on the occurrence of accidents at sea. While following the recommendations for on-board drills reduces the possibility of sea accidents, excessive on-board drills negatively affect rest hours, leading to crewmember fatigue and an increased risk of accidents.

Recommendations

For Naval Officers

The results of this study suggest that excessive on-board training may have a negative impact on the rest hours of crew members, leading to increased fatigue and at-sea accidents. The following recommendations were formulated based on the results of this study and previous research:

• Follow the regulations concerning on-board drills. SOLAS has created an extensive guideline for naval officers concerning drills and on-board training that can help reduce accidents at sea. Naval officers are recommended to follow these regulations strictly to minimize the chance of such accidents.
• Follow work hours regulations. Regulations on work hours help minimise the chance of fatigue among crew members. Reduced quality of rest hours may lead to increased fatigue among crewmembers, and on-board drills may have a deteriorating effect on rest hour quality. Therefore, naval officers should not attempt to compensate for insufficient time to conduct on-board training at the expense of crew members’ rest hours, as this can lead to increased accidents at sea.
• Ensure sufficient manpower at sea. Naval officers should ensure that the number of crew members is sufficient to complete all tasks at sea. This can be achieved by either ensuring an extended number of available crew members with needed qualifications or by reducing the number of tasks through careful management and automation.

For Future Research

Future research should focus on addressing the limitations of this study to improve the reliability and validity of findings. The list of recommendations is provided below.

• Validate the instrument. This study was limited by the reliability of measurements of the variables. To confirm the findings of this study, it is recommended to analyze the flaws of the questionnaire and create a new one. The design of the study can be mimicked with a new questionnaire to confirm the findings.
• Develop a more complicated model. This study relied on a simplistic model to answer the research question. As a result, the possibility of confounding variables was not considered. Moreover, the effect of decreased rest hours on fatigue levels was not confirmed. Future research can create a mediating effect of rest hours on the relationship between on-board training and fatigue levels. Such a study will confirm the dangers of excessive on-board drills for the risk of accidents at sea.
• Replicate the study for other contexts. This study is generalisable only to seafarers from the UK. At the same time, one of the central strengths of the study is the appropriateness of the methods for achieving its goal. Therefore, it is recommended that similar studies be conducted in other contexts, such as the US Navy or Spanish Navy, to increase the generalizability of the findings.

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