Updated:

Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis Essay

Exclusively available on Available only on IvyPanda® Made by Human No AI

Introduction

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease that occurs in the arterial walls and is caused by adaptive and innate immune responses. Inflammation controls the development and destabilization of arterial plaque (Bell et al., 2020). Cells involved in the atherosclerotic process are activated by soluble factors known as cytokines. Different biological effects of proinflammatory cytokines account for their proatherogenic activity (Bell et al., 2020). The paper explores the effects of inflammatory cytokines on the development of atherosclerosis, its impact on endothelial function, and how endothelial dysfunction causes plaque buildup.

Effects of Inflammatory Cytokines on the Development of Atherosclerosis

During the early stages of atherosclerosis, interferon-gamma (IFN- γ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) modify the distribution of endothelial-cadherin-catenin complexes and hinder the formation of F-actin stress fibers. TNF-α activates RhoA and myosin light chain kinase and raises cytosolic Ca2+ disrupting the endothelial junctions (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). As a result, the intercellular junctions are restructured, facilitating the transmigration of leukocytes which causes loss of barrier function. In addition, cytokines induce the adhesion and chemokine molecule expression on the vascular endothelium, thus favoring the recruitment, adherence, and migration of monocytes and lymphocytes into the vessel wall. When in the intima, leukocytes are activated permanently by locally generated cytokines, speeding up macrophage transformation into foam cells and improving cell-mediated oxidation (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). IFN- γ encourages the formation of foam cells through the upregulation of SR-PSOX, the scavenger receptor for phosphatidylserine and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), which is involved in the uptake of oxLDL, and subsequent foam cell transformation in macrophages. Proatherogenic cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IFN- γ interfere with the expression of STP-binding membrane cassette transporter A1. IFN- γ could be a molecular link between lipid metabolism and immune activity (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). When the disease advances, proinflammatory cytokines destabilize atherosclerotic plaques by improving cell apoptosis. Macrophage apoptosis causes the formation of cell debris, which results in the enlargement of the lipid core (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). On the other hand, plaque smooth muscle cell (SMC) makes the fibrous cap thin, favoring its rapture. Various proinflammatory cytokines induce SMC and macrophage apoptosis, mainly associated with IL-1, IFN-γ, and TNF-α, enhancing Fas-Fas ligand killing (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). Therefore, anti-inflammatory and pro-cytokines impact matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) expression and their inhibitors in tissue.

Finally, the antithrombotic EC properties can be deeply altered by cytokines. TNF-α and IL-1 increase tissue procoagulant and suppress the anticoagulant activities. The thrombomodulin-protein C system mediates it by reducing the transcription of protein C receptor genes and thrombomodulin. Proinflammatory cytokines modify the EC fibrinolytic properties, reduce the production of tissue plasminogen activators, and increase the secretion of type I plasminogen activator inhibitors (Fatkhullina et al., 2017). Thus, proinflammatory cytokines might precipitate thrombus formation and enhance the development of acute syndromes.

How Inflammatory Cytokines Impacts Endothelial Function

Inflammation is a protective response of tissue that eliminates causative agents and debris and is closely related to repair. The endothelial functioning can be affected when there is unavailability or decreased production of nitric oxide (NO) (Bai et al., 2020). It can also be affected by the imbalance in the relative contribution of endothelium-derived relaxing and contracting factors, such as endothelin-1 (ET-1), oxidants, and angiotensin (Bai et al., 2020). NO, produced by converting the amino acid L-arginine and L-citrulline by the enzyme NO synthase, is a key, relaxing factor vital in regulating tone and vasomotor function. Therefore, endothelial cells’ lower levels of NO production result in the relaxation of smooth muscle and vasodilation, which are anti-thrombogenic to platelets. Different infections can interfere with the normal function of the endothelial. The causes of the inflammation can be multi-factorial, but it may result from various chronic processes (Bai et al., 2020). After the endothelial cells have undergone inflammatory activation, the increased vascular cell adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) enhance adherence to monocytes (Bai et al., 2020). In addition, the expression of adhesion molecules is caused by proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β by the acute-phase protein, C-creative protein (CRP), and ox-LDL uptake through ox-LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1) interactions (Bai et al., 2020). Therefore, these infections interfere with the normal functioning of the endothelial.

How Endothelial Dysfunction Causes Plaque Buildup

During endothelial dysfunction, the activation of cytokines can take place. The activation increases vessel wall permeability to oxidized lipoproteins and inflammation mediators (Kwaifa et al., 2020). Ultimately, this causes structural damage to the arterial wall, the proliferation of the smooth muscle cells, and finally, the formation of atherosclerotic plaque (Kwaifa et al., 2020). When the cells of the endothelial layer get damaged, plaque formation occurs, which is made up of calcium, cholesterol, fat, and other substances in the blood.

Conclusion

Conclusively, this paper has discussed the effects of inflammatory cytokines on the development of atherosclerosis. For instance, inflammatory cytokines IFN- γ and TNF-α modify the distribution of endothelial-cadherin-catenin complexes and hinder the formation of F-actin stress fibers. In addition, proatherogenic cytokines such as IL-1β and IFN- γ interfere with the expression of STP-binding membrane cassette transporter A1. The impact of inflammatory cytokines on endothelial function has also been explained. Endothelial functioning is affected by the decreased production of NO. It is also affected by the imbalance in the relative contribution of endothelium-derived relaxing and contracting factors, such as endothelin-1 (ET-1), oxidant, and angiotensin. Finally, the paper has explained how endothelial dysfunction causes plaque buildup.

References

Bai, B., Yang, Y., Wang, Q. I., Li, M., Tian, C., Liu, Y., & Chu, X. M. (2020). . Cell Death & Disease, 11(9), 1-18. Web.

Bell, S., Gibson, J. T., Harshfield, E. L., & Markus, H. S. (2020). . Atherosclerosis, 313, 111-117. Web.

Fatkhullina, A. R., Peshkova, I. O., & Koltsova, E. K. (2017). . Biochemistry (Moscow), 81(11), 1358-1370. Web.

Kwaifa, I. K., Bahari, H., Yong, Y. K., & Noor, S. M. (2020). . Biomolecules, 10(2), 291. Web.

More related papers Related Essay Examples
Cite This paper
You're welcome to use this sample in your assignment. Be sure to cite it correctly

Reference

IvyPanda. (2024, March 21). Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis. https://ivypanda.com/essays/inflammatory-cytokines-and-development-of-atherosclerosis/

Work Cited

"Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis." IvyPanda, 21 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/inflammatory-cytokines-and-development-of-atherosclerosis/.

References

IvyPanda. (2024) 'Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis'. 21 March.

References

IvyPanda. 2024. "Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis." March 21, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/inflammatory-cytokines-and-development-of-atherosclerosis/.

1. IvyPanda. "Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis." March 21, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/inflammatory-cytokines-and-development-of-atherosclerosis/.


Bibliography


IvyPanda. "Inflammatory Cytokines and Development of Atherosclerosis." March 21, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/inflammatory-cytokines-and-development-of-atherosclerosis/.

If, for any reason, you believe that this content should not be published on our website, please request its removal.
Updated:
This academic paper example has been carefully picked, checked and refined by our editorial team.
No AI was involved: only quilified experts contributed.
You are free to use it for the following purposes:
  • To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
  • As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
  • As a template for you assignment
Privacy Settings

IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as:

  • Basic site functions
  • Ensuring secure, safe transactions
  • Secure account login
  • Remembering account, browser, and regional preferences
  • Remembering privacy and security settings
  • Analyzing site traffic and usage
  • Personalized search, content, and recommendations
  • Displaying relevant, targeted ads on and off IvyPanda

Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information.

Required Cookies & Technologies
Always active

Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions.

Site Customization

Cookies and similar technologies are used to enhance your experience by:

  • Remembering general and regional preferences
  • Personalizing content, search, recommendations, and offers

Some functions, such as personalized recommendations, account preferences, or localization, may not work correctly without these technologies. For more details, please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy.

Personalized Advertising

To enable personalized advertising (such as interest-based ads), we may share your data with our marketing and advertising partners using cookies and other technologies. These partners may have their own information collected about you. Turning off the personalized advertising setting won't stop you from seeing IvyPanda ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.

Personalized advertising may be considered a "sale" or "sharing" of the information under California and other state privacy laws, and you may have the right to opt out. Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy.

1 / 1