The religion views of the Koyukon people are reflected in The Watchful World by Richard Nelson and the five-part documentary Make Prayers to the Raven, based on Nelson’s book of the same title. Exploring the details of the cultural beliefs of this tribe, Nelson illuminates respectful attitude of the Indians to the environment. The religious beliefs of Koyukon people depicted in Nelson’s works correspond to Krech’s definition of the ecological Indian on the condition that the practical implementation of these principles is not taken into consideration.
The Ecological Indian: Myth and History by Shepard Krech aims to demythologize the image of the indigenous ethnicities of Americas as the peoples living in harmony with nature and environment. This work is rather controversial and provoked numerous debates, in which some of the researchers appreciated Krech’s work, others disapproved it. Anthropologist Shepard Krech denies the generally accepted idea of Indians’ unique ability to live harmoniously with nature.
One of Krech’s contributions was considering the Indians as usual human beings, with their strong and weak points, not idealizing them and not iminishing their level of development. In one of the final chapters of the works he used an extract from the interview with one of the Indians. “Just because I don’t want to be a white man doesn’t mean I want to be some kind of mystical Indian either. Just a real human being” (Krech 312). Researching ecological views of American Indians within several centuries and on the material of the numerous cultures, the scientist provides examples of their ecological incorrectness. “Shepard Krech is now one of the leaders in the move to debunk the myth of the Ecological Indian. He defines the truly ecological Indian clearly as one who did not change, damage or irrevocably alter his ecosystem” (Selin 340).
Investigating several case studies, Krech acted as a judge and managed to provide evidence supporting his thesis that the indigenous Indians damaged the environment immensely and consequently they do not correspond to his definition of the ecological people. “What is clear in all his careful scholarship is that Native Americans used, altered and in some cases damaged nature” (Selin 342). Krech researchesthe culture of mid-western Cahokia and proves that they damaged the forests so that needed to import wood. He finds evidence that southwestern civilization of Anasazi overused the natural resources.
The question is whether this evidence was enough to affirm that the image of the ecological Indians is false. Attempting to explain the pre-conditions for distorted image of the indigenous Indians as environmentalists, Krech manifests the fact that the image of environmentally friendly Indians was created by the contemporary ecologists. “Too often, Krech contended, presentists have used American Indians to push their own political agenda.
Interpretations of Indian culture were, therefore, oversimplified, false and even dehumanizing to Native Americans” (Oakley 100). The research of the anthropologist claims for complexity. It should be admitted that he does not deny the fact that there is evidence of the careful treatment of the resources by other tribes. The religious views of the Koyukon people do not contradict Krech’s definition of the ecological Indians, meeting all the requirements, though the investigation of their practice could display the evidence for the opposite facts.
The descriptions of the ancient religions are always only personal interpretations of the system of views. The same is with Nelson’s description of the Koyukon’s religion, its place in the general picture of life, having observed it for a year. It is necessary to be born Koyukon, be cultivated all the norms of their ethics and spend entire life in this region participating in its rituals in order to claim for the comprehensive understanding of the picture of life of these people.
But the author took pains attempting to explain the views and perspectives of Koyukons. “The link to land distinguishes Koyukon religion from ‘world religions’. Koyukon religion cannot be exported from central Alaska. Koyukon missionaries will never knock on your door” (Martin 8). It means that there are only few researches of this not widely spread world religion, while the contemporary views can differ from the views of the ancient Indians. “Nelson situates himself in his research and writing as someone attempting to understand the intellectual baggage of his own culture” (Harvey Indigenous Religions 344).
This manner of presentation of the material involves the reader in the continuing process of understanding as the information is not presented as manifestation of facts; the reader is to cooperate with the writer in order to understand certain episodes. “The intimacy of their relationship to nature is far beyond our experience – the physical dependence and the intense emotional interplay with a world that cannot be directly altered to serve the needs of humanity” (Harvey Indigenous Religions 345). The different factors and propositions influencing the social structure and system of views of the tribe are analyzed in the works Paying attention to the details which could be difficult to interpret for the present day readers, Nelson illuminates the religious views of Koyukons, putting special emphasis on their attitude to nature and environment.
The main reason for Koyukons’ inability to damage the environment is their supernatural concepts of nature. The two levels on which the tribe perceives the forces of nature are interconnected. The first level is empirical, it contains information on the environment that can be used for practical implementation in fishing or hunting. This level of perception would be interesting for Krech, investigating the damage caused by the tribes to nature.
But Koyukons’ perception is extended to the spiritual level, providing the elements of nature with supernatural abilities. These two levels cannot be separated or substituted. This religion assures that the elements of nature have senses, feelings and keep their eyes on humans. “A person moving through nature – however wild, remote, even desolate the place may be – is never alone. The surroundings are aware, sensate, personified… They can be offended. And they must, at every moment, be treated with proper respect” (Harvey Readings 345). It is impossible that the tribe which perceives the elements of nature as living beings, could damage the environment.
The Koyukons were afraid of not only social disregard for overuse of the natural resources but the punishment of the supernatural forces, fighting for justice. This was even more effective as people are frightened at everything mysterious and unknown. “Behavior towards nature is governed by an array of supernaturally based rules that ensure the well-being of both humans and the environment” (Harvey 346). Shifting the body responsible for the punishment outside the society, the tribe connected the empirical and spiritual levels of perception of nature and prevented the senseless overuse of the resources, considering every element of nature to be a separate living being and meeting the requirements of Krech’s definition of the ecological Indians.
One of the basic principles of the Koyukons religion is respect to nature and all its elements. The religion assures that the world was created by a raven or several ravens, which are regarded sacred birds. It was raven that bestowed spirit in all living beings. It is remarkable, that the first part of the documentary Make Prayers to the Raven attracts the spectators’ attention to the fact that the religious norms are still kept in this tribe, notwithstanding the fact, that children attend public schools and bring achievements of technology home. This mixture of modern technology and the religious heritage of the previous generations in one and the same society is amazing.
It demonstrates the universal character of the religious beliefs of Koyukons’, suitable for the people of the twenty first century as well. In other cultures raven is a negative symbol, Koyukons consider this bird to be a god on earth. The myth of the Immaculate Conception has its interpretations in this religion as well. It is connected with raven. “It was he, transformed into a spruce needle, who was swallowed by a woman so she would give birth to him as a boy” (Harvey Readings 347).
An interesting episode of the second part of the documentary depicts the visit of a Christian priest to the tribe. This character was aimed at bringing the elements of the new religion to the system of beliefs of the tribe. It appeared to be that Christianity and the religion of the tribe had much in common, though Koyukons had never seen Bible before. The beliefs of the members of the tribe became combined with the elements of Christianity, remaining its original identity. The Stories of the Distant Times is the analogue of Bible, gathering all the existing religious myths. All the religious myths of metamorphoses and origin of life in Koyukon religion are focused on the sacred raven, as an element of nature which is to be respected.
Developing the theme of the relations between the humans and nature, it should be admitted that having much in common animals are separated from people. The main difference is in the fact that people possess a soul while the animals have spirits. It is very difficult for the English speaking community to realize the difference between these two concepts, as they are almost synonymous in the English language. It is the point at which it is necessary to be born a Koyukon to have full comprehension of this difference.
“The Koyukon seem to conceptualize humans and animals as very similar beings. This derives not so much from the animal nature of humans as from the human nature of animals” (Harvey Readings 351). Respect of animals as the central principle of the Koyucon religion made the tribe find numerous human characteristics in them. The animals were expected to possess not only feelings and emotions but even some elements of the social organization, such as social norms and funeral rituals. The moral values and religious dogmas and taboos would prevent the members of the tribe damage their environment.
One more fact proving the similarity of images of animals and humans in the consciousness of the tribe is belief in a woodman – a medium creature combining features of an animal and a human. Hurting feelings of animals or plants has been considered a mortal sin in this tribe since times immemorial. This would result in punishment of the whole tribe not only the person taking a sin upon one’s soul. Identification of humans and animals in the system of Koyukon beliefs would prevent the members of the tribe from breaking the laws of nature and damaging the environment.
Not only animals but every element of nature was expected to have a spirit, requiring respect and special treatment. All the natural spirits are to be treated humanely. The Koyukons are against suffering of the animals, they would save every creature if it were possible. The trouble is that they live by hunting, but they try to kill without causing pain and only with the purpose to have enough meat to survive.
The fact that this tribe is against wildlife research in their area proves that this tribe could not damage the environment especially at the period when the religious beliefs were especially strong. “We know that the animal has a spirit – it used to be a human – and we know all the things it did. It’s not just an animal; it’s lots more than that” (Harvey Readings 355). In the documentary Make Prayers to the Raven people please the spirits of fish and animals before fishing or hunting. The fact that all the elements of nature were to be treated humanely and their spirits were to be pleased eliminates the probability, that members of this tribe could overuse the natural resources of the land.
Due to the fact that all the spirits of the elements of nature are to be treated humanely results is reflected in numerous rules and taboos concerning handling the bodies of the dead animals and their meat. For example, the bones of the animals are to be burnt. If there was meat in the house voicing the names of the killed animals was prohibited. The offended spirits of the animals were to punish the offender. The punishment depends upon the offence and the strength of the animal. In the fifth part of the documentary Make Prayers to the Raven the ceremony of pleasing the spirit of the black bear, whose spirit is the strongest, is depicted.
The fact that the human behavior was regulated by the numerous religious norms aimed at demonstrating respect for the spirits of the elements of nature even after their death proves that the religious feelings of Koyukon would have prevented them from damaging the environment. The humans were neither separated from other elements of nature nor regarded the lords of creation in the religion of Koyukon according to the materials provided in Nelson’s works.
The system of religious taboos prevents the members of the tribe from offending the spirits of animals not to mention damaging of the environment. Consequently, notwithstanding Krech’s statement that the image of Indians as environmentalists is false, the description of Koyukon tribe in Nelson’s works corresponds to Krech’s definition of ecological Indian.
The exaggerated respect of Koyukon tribe to animals and other elements of nature resulted in numerous taboos for the members of the tribe and reflected in their consciousness. People paying tribute of respect to the spirits of dead animals and taking pains not to offend them could not damage environment and consequently the description of this tribe in Nelson’s works corresponds to Krech’s definition of ecological Indian.
Bibliography
Harvey, Graham. Indigenous Religions: A Companion. Continuum, 2000: 302.
Harvey, Graham, ed. Readings in Indigenous Religions. Continuum, 2002: 371. Print.
Krech, Shepard. The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. Norton and Company, 2000:318. Print.
Make Prayers to the Raven. Dir. Badger, Mark. KUAC – TV; University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1987. Film.
Martin, Joel. The land Looks after Us: A History of Native American Religion. Oxford University Press, 2001: 156.
Oakley, Christopher Arris. Keeping the Circle: American Indian Identity in Eastern North Carolina, 1885. Thomson-Shore Inc., 2005: 191.
Selin, Helaine, Arne Kalland. Nature across Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in Non-Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003: 481.