The text that is today known as Leabhar Gabhála, or The Book of Invasions, represents the foundation and canon of early Irish historiography. Because of its prehistory, the work is also considered important for its contribution to mythography. Despite not being reliable as a resource for studying the ancient history of Ireland, the text is essential for shedding some light on both the cultural and political mythology of its authors.
The inspiration behind Leabhar Gabhála is attributed to the Christian pseudo-histories of the Middle Ages as well as the story of the Exodus. Besides, the authors intertwined the mentioned influences with the native pagan mythology of Ireland. Understanding the external influences on the Book of Invasions is important for pointing out the impact of European historiography as well as possible Latin influences.
Background
It is believed that the main objective of Leabhar Gabhála’s writers was to develop an epic origin story for the Irish people, similar to the one about the Israelites, which was instrumental for reconciling the native myths with the Christian perspective on history (Carey, 1993). The Book of Invasions combined a heterogenous body of myths, legends, and speculations associated with the early history of Ireland and the origins of its populations, and brought them together into a comprehensive framework.
The narrative embedded in the work extends from the creation of the universe to the emergence of Christianity, which represents a national myth that helped to establish the same footing as Rome and Israel (Carey, 1994). Therefore, in the centuries that followed the book, the doctrines served as backdrops for political thought, legends, historiography, and poetry.
Most significantly, the author of Leabhar Gabhála managed to merge two previously separate accounts of Irish history. While one perspective dealt with the history of the Gaels, the other was associated with exploring the successive invasions of Cessair, Partholón, and others. The narrative of invasions was embedded into the history of Gaels, with the author of the book drawing the attention of the audience to the change in the subject matter. The work is completed predominantly in prose but included already existing poems that were composed by several other authors. The prose is used to summarize the poems, so it is clear that poems are being cited as authoritative resources.
The critical concern of Leabhar Gabhála is associated with the theme of origins. As illustrated by the final three invasions, the tribes were detrimental to establishing medieval Ireland. Their role is supported by the emergence of characters who may appear elsewhere as gods but are predominantly portrayed as magicians who use the power of the earth (the Tuath(a) Dé Danann) (Duffy, 2005). Furthermore, it is essential to note the geography of Ireland, according to the book, is explained with the help of successive waves of settlers. Each invader managed to build great earthworks and clear plains, thus creating the Irish landscape.
For example, the book includes the tale of Partholón who cleared four plains, and as a result of this effort, seven lakes appeared (Duffy, 2005). The later invasions began introducing new social structures; for instance, during the fourth invasion, the country was split into five provinces, while the fir Bolg developed the idea of kingship and its sacred qualities. After Tuath(a) Dé Danann was defeated in the second battle of Mag Tuired, the latter deprived the Gaels of such vital products as milk and corn.
As a consequence, the country was split into two regions, with Tuath(a) Dé Danann residing in the fairy hills and mounds while the Gaels lived on the plains. Therefore, the history of Ireland’s population, its physical geography, and landscape, as well as the social institutions are explored in Leabhar Gabhála and set within the historical framework that was provided by the Bible. It is expected to trace significant links between the Book of Invasions and the Biblical stories. Since the latter was initially written and Hebrew and later translated into Latin in the 4th century BC, it is also expected to find some influences of the Latin language on Leabhar Gabhála.
Influence of Christianity
The Bible is one of the key external influences on Leabhar Gabhála, both structurally and historically. Moreover, the turn of the narrative, such as the fall of Nimrod’s tower or the Genesis to the second Exodus of the Israelites and the Gaedil, is also similar in the Book of Invasions. Thus, the Genesis in Leabhar Gabhála is identical to the Christian story of the creation, which is characterized by the fall of man and early world history (Scowcroft, 1987). Apart from Genesis, the authors drew upon several works for numerous details, such as the Syriac Cave of Treasures as well as other Christian literary works, such as The City of God.
The early history of the Gaels, as suggested by the work, begins with the exploration of the emergence of mankind, which began from Adam via the sons of Noah. The story proceeds with telling that a son of Noah, Japheth, was the ancestor of all Europeans, how the son of Japheth, Magog, was the ancestor of the Gaels and Scythians, and that Fénius Farsaid was the ancestor of the Gaels. The latter, who was a prince of Scythia, was described to be among the people building the Tower of Babel, which also had great importance in Biblical writing. The son of Fair said was said to marry an Egyptian pharaoh’s daughter, who gave birth to his son named Goídel Glas. The offspring of their son left Egypt at the same time as the Israelites, which is also traceable in the Exodus.
It is important to note that pagan Celts must have had numerous traditions and tales regarding the origins of their world. According to Scowcroft (1987), the druids declared the souls of people and the universe to be imperishable; although, fire and water could prevail to reveal the native conception of cosmic cycles. Although, such opinions may be seen as no more than “armchair extrapolation, based on the beliefs shared by many Greek and Roman authors that the teachings of the druids closely resembled those attributed to Pythagoras” (Scowcroft, 1987, p. 2).
The conversion of the Celtic peoples to Christianity replaced the authority of pagan religion with that of the Bible. The legends of native origins that survived had to go in harmony with the model provided by the Book of Genesis, as embellished and interpreted by the emergence of Christian historiography.
It is important to mention that Irish scholars deemed the invention and hybridization of Christian historiography as pseudo-history, despite their significant influence on the shaping of the Celtic narrative and the history of Ireland retold through legends. When it comes to the Western perspective, Jerome’s translation of the Chronicle of Eusebius and the History against the Pagans of Orosius, together with the Bible, represent an important influence on the establishment of Ireland’s history (Scowcroft, 1987). The documents’ value is attributed to not only offering information about the distant times and places but also to the models of narrative that could serve as frameworks for elaborating on the artificial past.
According to the Leabhar Gabhála, the first population to arrive in Ireland was led by Cessair. They were instructed to travel along the western edge of the world to escape the upcoming flood, which is a theme that is directly linked to the teachings from the Bible. By setting out in several ships, Cessair and his followers landed in Ireland, at Dun an mBarc, forty days before the great flood (Koch, 2006). However, when the flood eventually came, only Fintán was the only person to survive. He transformed into a salmon and later became an eagle who lived more than five thousand years after the flood. The figure of Fintán is important for the Book of Invasions because he was the one to reincarnate as a person and recount the history of Ireland.
The analysis of Leabhar Gabhála illustrates the role that the Irish kings had in the shaping of the country’s religious underpinnings. The unknown author of the work developed a piece of literature that can be considered the consequence of the efforts of the Irish clerks of the Middle Ages to connect pre-Christian developments with the Biblical accounts (Koch, 2006).
Because of this, it is possible to find numerous elements of Christian literature that are intertwined with the lore of old Ireland, whose kinds and heroes are depicted as historical figures of the exceedingly remote past. As the Bible begins by telling the story of the world’s inception, Leabhar Gabhála starts with the creation of the universe. The connections between the Book of Invasions and the Bible are undeniable, which shows that the old myths have all stemmed from the same place.
Influence of Latin Language
Together with the traditions of Irish texts that have had their roots in Jewish texts, there is a significant body of Irish synthetic history (Scowcroft, 1988). In such a context, the men of letters managed to create prehistory of the coming of the Irish to Ireland based on the narrative of the Old Testament. The Latin influence is traced in the names of the characters involved in the myths. The biblical impact is traced in the Tower of Babel, Nemrod’s tower, or Japheth, or Adam (Kulik and DiTommaso, 2019). From the Irish side, there is a pre-requisite associated with the publication of the Irish Latin and the vernacular of relevant texts.
The names that are used in the narrative, such as the Fir Bolg, who was the first to return from the fourth invasion, were used as a collective name signifying a tribe and connected to the continental Celtic tribal name Belgae (Duffy, 2005). The Gáilióin was later known as the Laigin that gave the name to the modern province of Leinster. The group that traveled to the north of the world became greatly experienced in magical arts and received the name Tuath(a) Dé Danann, signifying the tribes of the goddess Danu/Danann. During the final invasion, which was led by the sons of Míl Espáine who managed to defeat in the battle against Tuath(a) Dé Danann and proceeded to the Hill of Tara, where they met the three goddesses Banba, Fódla, and Ériu (Duffy, 2005). The three goddesses received a promise from Míl Espáine that land would be named after them.
The mentions of the characters’ names suggest that the Book of Invasions has significant native elements. However, the content in which the names are embedded is rooted in the Christian biblical tradition. For example, the name of the leader from the second invasion, Partholón, is an apparent borrowing from Latin Bartholomeus, whose name is explained as “the son of he who stays the waters” (Duffy, 2005, p. 233).
That is, the name suggests that Partholón was the one who survived the Great Flood. Moreover, the story of Gaels is especially closely linked to Latin learning and narrative. Such a narrative could be traced to Japheth, who was Noah’s son. The first in their line, Fénius Farsaid, was present at Babel when the languages of different people were rendered incomprehensible to each other. The offspring of Farsaid were in Egypt at the same time as the Israelites.
The son of Fénius married Scotia, the daughter of a pharaoh. In Latin, Scotia’s name means “Irishwoman” while the name of her son, Goídel Glas, gave the name to Gaels (Goídil), and their language (Goídelc) that he created (Duffy, 2005, p. 233). The population let by Goídel Glas was later persecuted by the Egyptians, which was the fate similar to the Israelites, and were forced to wander the lands until they could finally reach Spain.
In their travels, they were led by Míl Espáine, whose name is derived from Latin miles Hispaniae, which is translated as the soldier of Spain. His name also signifies the belief that the Latin name for Ireland, which is Hibernia, was derived from Iberia, which refers to something or someone that has originated from the Iberian Peninsula, including Spain, Portugal, or Andorra (Iberia, no date). Míl Espáine’s faith was similar to that of Moses who led his people on a journey to reach freedom and escape captivity, thus reaching the land that was prophesized to be the one where they would settle.
The stories retelling the accounts of the six invasions showed to include many characters whose names were derived from Latin. These connections reinforce the influence of Biblical texts not only in terms of the narrative structure and the main events described in the myths but also in the way in which authors decided to approach the naming of key figures that helped shape the history of Ireland. While the names have Latin origins, they represent the core mythology of Ireland’s historiography.
Modern Historiographic Perspective
For many centuries, the Book of Invasions was perceived to be a reliable account of Ireland’s history. Only in the 17th century, Keating explore the source when compiling the history of Ireland; moreover, Leabhar Gabhála has been widely used by the school; ars developing the Annals of the Four Masters (Lennon, 2008). Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the work was subsequently subjected to significant scrutiny.
According to Carey (1993), the work is placed within the category of historical fabrication and even pseudo-history, drawing upon the attention to its many limitations and fictions, which had embodied some popular traditions. Moreover, the Irish archaeologist, Steward Macalister, who worked on translating the book, said that there was “not a single element of genuine historical detail, in the strict sense of the word, anywhere in the whole compilation” (Macalister, 1939, p. 252). It is also believed that the Book of Invasions was invented by Christian writers in their attempt to liken the Gaels to the Israelites (Monaghan, 2014).
Such an attempt may be traced in other pseudo-histories of Medieval times, such as the History of Goths. Carey (1994, p. 13), when exploring the nature of the work, described the work as “a model of barbarian pseudo-history.” Therefore, the relatively modern perspective of Leabhar Gabhála should be considered not as a piece of historical study but rather as a fictional work that reflected the ancient beliefs of the Irish.
Despite the significant level of criticism associated with Leabhar Gabhála’s historical evidence, some of the aspects of the book were said to be loosely based on real occurrences. According to O’Rahilly’s (1946) model of Irish prehistory, it was revealed that there were four distinct periods of Celtic invasions. Leabhar Gabhála, is, therefore, significant for depicting the invasions through myth and literary devices, which established a framework for Gaelic mythology that continued through centuries. Myths are detrimental to the history of Ireland due to them shaping the culture by word of mouth even before being laid down on paper when Christianity appeared in the lands. Therefore, while the myths are fiction, it does not mean they cannot be archaeologically plausible even to a minor extent.
Concluding Remarks
The Book of Invasions is of great significance for understanding the mythology of Ireland and its historical development. The series of manuscripts that make up the book provides an account of the different populations who settled in Ireland after the flood, which is a myth that could be found in many other cultures and the narrative of the Book of Genesis. Therefore, the Bible represents the core influence on Leabhar Gabhála.
As Christianity was introduced to Ireland in the 5th century BC, the objective of the work was ideally summed up by Carey (1993) who wrote that the work was meant to bring the population together by eliminating the memories of various ethnic groups, to decrease the impact of pre-Christian pagan religion, and to develop the ancestry in which the different dynastic groups can be conveniently fitted. Therefore, due to the need to facilitate the more significant impact of Christianity on the shaping of Ireland’s history, the narratives embedded into the Book of Invasions are directly linked to the tales of Genesis.
The impact of the Latin language on the choice of the main characters’ names is also necessary to mention. From Míl Espáine, whose name was translated as the soldier of Spain, to Scotia, whose name meant Irishwoman, the key characters of the story were based on the Latin language due to the influence of Christian narratives. Therefore, the aim that the compilers of Leabhar Gabhála were to combine and synthesize previously separated pagan and Christian traditions to develop a continuous history of Ireland, from the inception of the universe to the times during which they lived.
Reference List
Carey, J. (1993) A new introduction to Leabhar Gabála Érenn: the book of the taking of Ireland. Irish Texts Society, 5(34), pp. 1932-1942.
Carey, J. (1994) The Irish national origin-legend: synthetic pseudohistory. Cambridge: University of Cambridge.
Duffy, S. (2005) Routledge revivals: medieval Ireland. Oxford: Routledge.
Iberia. (no date) Web.
Koch, J. (2006) Celtic culture: a historical encyclopaedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Kulik, A. and Ditommaso, L. (2019) A guide to early Jewish texts and traditions in Christian transmission. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lennon, J. (2005) Irish orientalism: a literary and intellectual history. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
Macalister, R. (1939) Leabhar Gabála Érenn – the book of the taking of Ireland. Part II. Dublin: Irish Texts Society.
Monaghan, P. (2014) The encyclopaedia of Celtic mythology and folklore. New York, Facts on File.
Scowcroft, M. (1987) ‘Leabhar Gabhála part I: the growth of the text’, Ériu, 38, pp. 81-142.
Scowcroft, M. (1988) ‘Leabhar Gabhála part II: the growth of the tradition’, Ériu, 39, pp. 1-66.