It is important to note that logical fallacies are common mistakes made during the reasoning process, which undermine one’s logical aspect of an argument (Purdue University, 2022). The logical fallacy of begging the question or claim takes place when a statement, which requires a proof, is validated within the claim. For example – toxic and harmful vaping devices should be permanently banned. The claim ‘toxic and polluting’ is assumed to be true, which needs to be proved before being used as part of the argument. Circular reasoning “restates the argument rather than actually proving it” (Purdue University, 2022, para. 17). For instance – a cheetah is fast because it can run quickly. Fast and running quickly is the same idea, and thus, a claim cannot prove itself and needs specific evidence, facts, and illustrations.
Weak analogy takes place when one concept or analogy is used to compare it with the key argument, but the similarity is poor between them. For example – you should eat only what you need to function because cars do not get gasoline beyond what they use. In other words, cars and human bodies cannot be compared as analogies. Ad hominem fallacy or personal attack refers to targeting one’s personality rather than his or her arguments. For instance – Joe Biden’s policies are bad because he is old and weak. The argument is flawed because policies must be critiqued, not the president’s presumed personal traits or characteristics. Creating a straw man is an oversimplification of one’s perspective and attacking it as if it was hollow (Purdue University, 2022). For example – people who support gun laws are against the 2nd Amendment of the Constitution. One might support gun laws without being anti-gun but merely want background checks and better tracking of weapons, and thus, the argument excessively oversimplifies the opponents’ stance.
A hasty or sweeping generalization “is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence” (Purdue University, 2022, para. 5). For example – Steve came to work late today, and he will never succeed in his life. One instance of lateness is not sufficient evidence to make such a general conclusion. Either/or fallacy is “a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices” (Purdue University, 2022, para. 20). For example – we can either can start exercising daily or die from chronic diseases. The statement ignores a wide range of other options, such as healthy eating, sufficient sleeping, or reducing stress levels. Red herring is a fallacy of diversion and avoidance of the core elements of the argument, where they become unaddressed. For example – plastic might be causing pollution, but how will we make our devices and toys for children? The topic is switched from the main topic of plastic pollution to children’s toys and people’s devices.
A slippery slope refers to arguing that one occurrence will immediately lead to a series of changes in a similar direction, which will lead to the most extreme version of it. For example – gay marriage should not be legalized because we will eventually legalize child marriage and bestiality. The problem is that there is a large number of steps and arguments between a normal gay marriage and these extremes, which cannot be dismissed. Equivocation refers to the use of a term or word ambiguously. Example – All dogs bark and trees have barked, which means all dogs are trees. The term ‘bark’ is used ambiguously to mean different concepts. Appeal to doubtful authority is using a false authority as someone or something credible. For example – Joe Rogan used Ivermectin, and thus, Ivermectin is effective against COVID-19. Joe Rogan is neither a vaccination expert nor a credible professional on human health.
Statistics misuse occurs when statistical data is presented inaccurately or with bias. Examples include using a modified X-axis/Y-axis, presenting correlation as causation, not indicating important details, etc. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc “is a conclusion that assumes that if A occurred after B, then B must have caused A” (Purdue University, 2022, para. 8). For Example – a black cat crossed my path, and then I had an argument with my wife, the cat must be the cause.
A non sequitur is a fallacy where there is a lack of connection between the provided premises as well as drawing conclusions. For example – smoking does not cause cancer because people died from the disease before cigarettes were even invented. The argument does not follow since there is no connection between historic premises the smoking. The bandwagon fallacy “is an appeal that presents what most people or a group of people think, in order to persuade one to think the same way” (Purdue University, 2022, para. 26). For example – most women I know are against legalizing abortion, which is why it should be banned.
Reference
Purdue University. (2022). Logical fallacies. Web.