Introduction
Mao Zedong is a Chinese revolutionary, political, state, and party leader of China, the main theorist of Maoism. Mao Zedong is considered the most controversial and controversial politician in the history of the modern world. Mao, fascinated by the success of the revolution in Russia, was imbued with the ideas of Bolshevism. In the 1920s, he began to create underground cells and promote the new ideology (White 41). Thus, it is important to analyze the influence of Mao Zedong’s leadership on democracy, equality, respect, and multiculturalism in China during the Cultural Revolution.
Leadership Background and the Cultural Revolution
After the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia, Mao became a supporter of the ideas of Leninism. He established centers of support in many Chinese municipalities and became secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC). At this time, the Communists actively converged with the Communist Party of the Guomindang, which was engaged in the propaganda of nationalism (Chang 32). However, a few years later, the Communist Party and the Guomindang became irreconcilable enemies.
In 1927, Mao organized the first coup in the city area of Changsha and created the Communist Republic (White 41). The leader of the first free zone relies mainly on the farmers. He conducted ownership reform, eliminating private land and granting women the power to vote and perform labor. Mao Zedong became a powerful figure among the Communists and, capitalizing on his position, conducted the first cleansing three years later.
The Cultural Revolution in China was a political campaign initiated by Communist Party leader Mao Zedong to create a new human being. This new person was to become a selfless social creature in a society free from domination. To achieve this goal, Mao called for the destruction of four vestiges: old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits (Chang 33).
It began with the defeated activities of the schoolchildren and students of the Hongweibin; the young people formed into squads and began an aggressive struggle against the four remnants. Specifically, it primarily affected teachers and professors, who were forced to confess. Teachers’ apartments were vandalized, and temples, pagodas, and libraries were destroyed (Chang 35). Workers and large sections of the urban population soon joined the revolution. Increasingly, local Party apparatuses became victims, and the country was plunged into chaos.
When the situation was completely outside his control, Mao incorporated the People’s Liberation Army of China under his leadership. By 1968, the military had taken almost complete control of the country (Cheng and Yang 1338). The Hongweibians who continued to resist were sent to be re-educated in rural areas or summarily executed.
In 1969, the restoration of the party apparatus began, but the military under Lin Biao was not eager to surrender voluntarily. Lin Biao himself took part in the infamous “Project 571” conspiracy to assassinate Mao (Chang 33). Nevertheless, the plot was uncovered, and the plane in which Lin Biao fled China towards the Soviet Union crashed under still unclear circumstances in Mongolia. Thus, the Cultural Revolution was also a kind of power struggle within the leadership of the Communist Party of China.
Mao’s Policies and Ideology
Maoism was formed under the influence of Marxism, Stalinism, and traditional Chinese philosophy. Before 1976, Maoism was considered to be the official ideology of the Communist Party of China; later, the party’s ideological guidelines changed noticeably (Cheng and Yang 1338). Peculiarities of interpretation and practical use of Mao Zedong’s ideas were expressed in three main forms: in China itself, in Southeast Asia, and in Western Europe and Latin America.
Furthermore, dialectics in Mao Zedong’s teachings were closely intertwined with his socio-philosophical views. First, it is the theory of revolution that resolves the main contradiction between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat (Dikôtter 13). In the theory of permanent revolution, Mao Zedong emphasized that the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie moves into the Communist Party itself, which requires special measures of an ideological and organizational nature.
On the one hand, the emphasis on the need for constant struggle allowed Mao Zedong to implement revolutionary changes, end the war, and stay in power long enough (Dikôtter 13). He noted that a brief period of terror was required. On the other hand, the implementation of the theory of permanent revolution in practice led to a cultural revolution and ideological and economic excesses.
It is also essential to highlight the ideology of Mao Zedong’s ethical views, which combine the principles of Confucianism and revolutionary ethics. Revolutionary ethics emphasized the importance of social values over the values of the individual and the subordination of the individual to the interests of society (Dikôtter 13). Individualism was sharply criticized, the virtue being the sacrifice of one’s interests for the sake of the public’s interests.
Thus, at the state level, a policy of ignoring the interests of certain people was pursued, which led to constant restrictions and repressions. Moreover, the ideology of cultural revulsion occupied a special place in the political sphere of China (Dikôtter 15). As a result of the underestimation of the role of the intelligentsia and the finding of its ignorance, the strategy of relocating the intelligentsia to the countryside to familiarize themselves with the practice was developed.
However, in reality, this was done to suppress the liberal movement in the party and to eliminate the liberal-minded intelligentsia. Various segments of the population were involved in the struggle against teachers, propagandists, and intellectuals, and detachments were organized (Dikôtter 14). Thus, Mao Zedong pursued a systematic policy of destroying educated people and fostering other political views and ideologies. Moreover, the persecution of people who do not support Mao’s views in the middle of the party also indicates the elimination of the remnants of democracy.
The Great Leap Forward and Its Consequences
In addition, it is essential to notice Mao Zedong’s “Great Leap Forward” strategy and concept. The strategy of pursuing catch-up development, focusing on the production and consumption benchmarks of developed countries, led to a low growth rate of the Chinese economy in the late 1950s (Brown para 4). Production was also declining, which hurt the population’s sentiment, but liberal sentiments were suppressed.
The “Great Leap Forward” culminated in a series of massive all-China campaigns involving virtually the entire population, then numbering nearly a billion people. The duties of the peasants included smelting metals and making agricultural implements and vehicles. It was also the duty of the peasants to control rats, flies, mosquitoes, and sparrows. This was because sparrows devoured the crops, causing enormous losses to the national economy. In six months, the Chinese destroyed 1.96 billion birds (Brown para 6). This had a little negative impact, and the ecological balance was disturbed, and the number of insects that destroyed the few crops increased sharply.
Moreover, the result was the primitive collectivization of the rural economy, which led to the loss of individual property rights and the destruction of traditional social structures. Approximately 45 million Chinese died of starvation between 1958 and 1962 (Brown para 4). Overall, more than 65 million Chinese died as a result of Mao’s repeated, merciless attempts to create a new “socialist” China (U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs 1). That is because all those who were in the path of Mao’s efforts were suffering on a massive scale; they were being tortured, forced into captivity, or made to starve.
Similarly, in 1961, the 9th Plenum of the Communist Party Central Committee decided to suspend the policy of the “Great Leap Forward” in agriculture. It adopted emergency measures for the purchase of grain from Canada and Australia. Real wages fell in the cities by 10%, and the attempt to build a “New China” cost the country almost $70 billion, which was about one-third of the gross national product (Brown para 11). Furthermore, this policy was notorious for mass repressions against the highlanders who opposed the continuation of the policy.
Chinese Revolution and the Communist International in Shaping Mao’s Leadership
It is important to note that the Communist International emphasized the national democratic character of the Chinese Revolution. According to this vision, party representatives should unite with the proletariat in the national liberation movement (Cheng and Yang 1340). It was this unification that Mao Zedong’s democratic thinking was intended to demonstrate. Mao used historical experience to preserve the coalition in the United Front by maintaining the proletariat’s leadership role and adhering to militancy in the Chinese Revolution (Cheng and Yang 1340). He turned these concepts into an effective weapon with which the Communist Party maintained its position.
Mao Zedong also used the position of the Communist International that the labor movement and the urban revolution should be the focus of the Communist Party’s work. However, the leader changed it and focused on the countryside to form a strategic base for the accumulation of people’s forces. Nevertheless, this decision was dictated by the need to control the peasants and prevent them from rebelling. Moreover, Mao, as a leader, believed that the role of the Communist Party, as emphasized by the Communist International, was to address key issues in the Chinese Revolution (Cheng and Yang 1342).
In practice, Mao Zedong developed a uniquely creative approach to party building that emphasized ideas. The scientific synthesis achieved by Mao Zedong based on the history and experience of the Communist International provided decisive guidance to the Chinese Revolution. This synthesis involved the integration of the fundamental principles of Marxism with Chinese revolutionary practice (Cheng and Yang 1352). Accordingly, guided by Mao Zedong’s idea, the power and influence of the CPC were significantly strengthened, which negatively affected the principles of democracy.
Human Rights Abuses and the Prioritization of Party Loyalty
Mao Zedong was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party and widely violated people’s rights and freedoms. This was allowed because the leader created a system of abuse of power that helped destroy democracy. Accordingly, Mao placed party loyalty above personal rights and freedoms.
Examples of human rights violations included the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution (Cohen 65). During the Great Leap Forward, millions of people suffered and died from headaches and a lot of labor. Indeed, political repression and persecution of those who disagreed with the leader’s policies and ideology were also practiced by Mao Zedong.
However, the leader prioritized the development and rule of the Communist Party over the rights of the people, who were constantly subjected to violence by the authorities. In this way, Mao’s anti-democratic policy of violence and repression was authorized to eliminate anyone who threatened his rule (Cohen 81). As a result, freedom of speech, assembly, and association was also suppressed during Mao’s rule. Therefore, Mao’s prioritization of party loyalty over individual rights and freedoms was a fundamental flaw in his leadership and led to serious violations of individual rights in China.
International and Domestic Consequences of Mao’s Leadership
Significantly, internationally, Mao’s policies and actions contributed to China’s isolation from democratic states, especially during the Cold War. Such policies as the “Great Leap Forward” and the “Cultural Revolution” were promoted by developed countries as massive violations of people’s rights and freedoms, which caused famine and economic stagnation (Dikôtter 11). Moreover, Mao’s funding and international support for revolutionary movements in other countries also contributed to the deterioration of relations with other states and China’s gradual isolation from the outside democratic world.
However, domestically, Mao’s leadership had little impact on political and social change. The leader’s policy was based on the destruction of traditional Chinese culture and values and the persecution of people who disagreed with the ideology of the party (Dikôtter 13). Mao also centralized power in the Communist Party and restricted political freedoms, which led to a lack of accountability and transparency in the government. Therefore, Mao Zedong’s rule hurt China’s political and social development.
Mao’s Intervention in the Korean War
The ideological factor of intervention in the war can be distinguished according to the international position of the Chinese People’s Republic (PRC) and the country’s dominant ideology. The victory of the Communist Party of China in the Civil War contributed to the development of the idea of the establishment of communist power throughout Asia. Consequently, there was a need to support the Kim Il-Sung regime in North Korea (Crocker 43). In May 1949, at a meeting between leaders of the PRC and the DPRK, Mao Zedong supported his neighbor in the idea of unifying Korea militarily, which was the reason for entering the war (Crocker 51). Also, the PRC had its reasons for intervening in the war.
After the CCP victory in the Civil War, a problem arose that historiography has called the Taiwan Question. For the Chinese People’s Republic, it was one of the main problems in domestic politics. The Communist Chinese leadership believed that the country must necessarily be united under the rule of the CCP. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Kuomintang government in Taiwan was financially supported by the United States (Crocker 69).
Therefore, the mainland PRC was concerned about the possible strengthening of the Kuomintang party and the resumption of the Civil War. With the outbreak of the Korean conflict, the U.S. began to establish military bases in Taiwan. The PRC became even more concerned when U.S.-led joint United Nations forces approached the 38th parallel of the Korean Peninsula (Crocker 72). Therefore, based on ideology and the protection of the interests of the regime of Mao Zedong, the PRC entered the Korean War.
Counterargument About the Negative Impact of Mao Zedong’s Policy
Mao Zedong also pursued a positive policy of military intervention, which contributed to China’s growth. For example, it is argued that the invasion of Korea helped to protect China’s national interests (Lynch 12). This is because Chinese leaders fought a war on foreign soil and were able to demonstrate China’s military power to the West and ensure the inviolability of their land (Lynch 13). Furthermore, Mao’s economic policy contributed to the improvement of the economy and industry; even during the Great Leap Forward program, Mao developed steel furnaces even in small industrial centers. This policy laid the foundation for the future growth of the state.
Refutation of the Counterargument: Lies and Manipulation
It is important to note that China’s entry into the war was not justified in terms of Chinese deaths and economic decline. The military action was not intended to protect China from Western attack but to strengthen its expansion in the region. The People’s Republic of China has conquered or laid claim to more than 2 million square miles of territory. It is still engaged in militarized territorial disputes over much of its territory, even though the rise of China’s economy is attributed to the rule of Mao Zedong (U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs 1).
The communist methods of conducting politics caused about 100 million deaths in the 20th century. It was during the “Great Leap Forward” that 65 million people died in China from hunger, heavy labor, and persecution by the authorities (U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs 1). However, it was not the CCP’s policy but the U.S. openness and willingness to engage in international trade with China that contributed to the development of the country’s economy.
Conclusion
In summary, Mao Zedong’s rule can be characterized as a negative period in China’s history. This is because during the “Cultural Revolution” and the “Great Leap Forward,” there were significant human rights violations, persecution, and political assassinations. As a result, this policy led to the destruction of the values of the Chinese people and a high mortality rate. Therefore, Mao’s leadership contributed to the destruction of democracy and equality. China’s external isolation did not allow the country to develop and modernize, and the internal regime repressed all individuals who wanted to have freedom of speech and action.
Moreover, the negative effects of the policy can be demonstrated through the multicultural emphasis. This is especially noticeable during collectivization and the imposition of a policy of collective welfare. The ruling party did not respect the individual characteristics of people, their aspirations, and desires. Accordingly, Mao Zedong’s leadership is a period of decline in the world, rights, and opportunities of the people of China.
Thus, Mao Zedong’s leadership style and methods of governance caused the suffering of the Chinese people and the restriction of their rights and freedoms. Moreover, the programs that required many human sacrifices and deaths did not bring the expected economic growth and general welfare of the citizens. As a result, people lived in a communist regime and were subjected to repression for showing disrespect to the ruling elite. They also suffered from poverty and a lack of personal development. Thus, Mao Zedong’s leadership required significant resources and human sacrifice but did not benefit society and the state.
Works Cited
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Crocker, Harry Martin. Chinese Intervention in the Korean War. 2002. Louisiana State University, Master’s Theses.
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