Introduction
What impact does mass media have on children’s growth in regards to gender messaging? The media portrayals of gender roles often create certain gendered attitudes and character traits among children. Gender stereotyping, packaged as humor, is common in popular children’s channels, films, video games, and television shows.
The young viewers watch and internalize overt attitudes and behavior contained in media messages resulting in ingrained gender stereotypes. Certain misconceptions, such as ‘boys will always be boys’ and ‘girls are always neat, conveyed through the media have a big influence on young children’s attitudes and behavior.
Besides overt expressions, young children receive a barrage of subtle messages that portray the society’s gendered attitudes and expectations. The media are responsible for “defining and framing gender stereotypes in the society” (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013, p. 89). Children process gender messages in the media and develop attitudes about what is right or wrong.
This paper argues that media exposure has negative impacts on children’s gender socialization and attitude formation. Media messages convey skewed expectations of male and female behavior and role, which unrealistic gender stereotypes and identities.
Comparison of Media
The 1980s are characterized by the evolution of personal computers, which became available in schools and homes (Lou et al., 2012). Computers were revolutionary in the sense that they enabled children to access more media content and interact online. The interactive element was missing in traditional media forms such as television. In addition, the advent of computers transformed media content as messages begun to contain sexual and gender elements.
In the 1990s, media channels, such as kid’s films, video games, and television shows begun to convey sexual content and gendered messages. Parents protested against the inclusion of sexual themes in children’s programs claiming that such exposure was detrimental to their social growth.
As a result, it was decided that all films, cartoons, music videos, and TV shows be rated to regulate the content conveyed to young audiences (Lou et al., 2012). However, due to flawed enforcement of the rating systems, children continue to access sexual messages. In addition, gender stereotypes, as portrayed in mass media, continue to influence children’s attitudes, behavior, and popular culture.
Gender Stereotypes
Gender and sex mean two different things; the former refers to the cultural and societal qualities attributed to a social group while the latter defines the distinctive biological traits of male and female (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013). While sex has a biological basis, gender develops through social interactions.
Femininity and masculinity are defined according to set social standards that define ideal male or female behavior. People learn these sexualized roles through gender typing, whereby culture defines what is appropriate or inappropriate for either gender (Lou et al., 2012).
Peers and parents play a crucial role in early gender identity development and socialization. The way parents treat their children, including the type of toys they buy for them and media messages received, influences their attitudes and behavior (Lou et al., 2012).
Young children learn to associate clothing, toys, and activities with feminine or masculine identity based on messages portrayed in the media. Society expects boys to pursue activities associated with power and influence while girls are expected to show loyalty and care to others (Lou et al., 2012). Thus, despite biological predispositions, society has a big influence on children’s behavior and interests. The media maintain these gender stereotypes through the messages they convey to young children.
Gender stereotypes occur in media ads and commercials, teen films, music videos, video games, storybooks, and kid’s television programs, among others (Eisend, 2010). Media portrayals of gender attributes include independence, competitiveness, and assertiveness for males and gentleness for females.
Men are also taught to assert their authority over women, while women are expected to sensitive and caring to others. Moreover, women are displayed as weak and compliant while men are depicted as aggressive and powerful. Thus, qualities that involve empathy, such as affection, nurturing, and collaboration are considered feminine. On the other hand, aggression and independence are masculine qualities.
Women are also victims of sexual objectification by the media. Commercials carry sexualized and distorted images of feminine and masculine bodies. Other forms of media, such as video games, use female characters with big bosoms and attractive bodies (Smith & Cook, 2012).
Women are also under pressure to look young, pretty, and single, and dress in a sexy manner. Besides, discussions in popular television and radio programs feature issues related to shopping, relationships, and attractiveness with less emphasis on economic or political themes. Lou et al. (2012) observe that the media portrayals associate women with household/family roles and men with careers.
However, other studies associate single women with careers and married ones with marital roles (Smith & Cook, 2012). In general, the media often link women to family or romance regardless of their marital status. Other media forms associate femininity with youthfulness, independence, and tenderness.
Impacts of Mass Media Exposure on Children
The media has, inarguably, a big influence on children’s gender socialization. The young audience is more likely to be influenced by gender stereotypes contained in media products than adults are. Moreover, it is more difficult to change ingrained media stereotypes in children than in adults.
According to Eisend (2010), media stereotypes affect girls negatively by eliciting feelings of poor self-image and dissatisfaction with one’s appearance. This hampers their personal growth, restricts access to opportunities, and affects career progression. The media also foster the continuity of gendered attitudes in the society regarding behavior and gender roles.
Exposure to popular media also influences children’s attitudes. A study by Madden et al. (2013), which examined how television influences attitude formation, found a positive correlation between TV viewership and personal values and feelings. Regular exposure to television messages produces ingrained values and attitudes that are difficult to change in young viewers.
Based on these findings, Madden et al., (2013) conclude that the media makes children to see and interpret traits, activities, and behavior with ‘gendered lenses’. Gender stereotypes can affect the young audience’s “perception of social reality” (Madden et al., 2013, Para. 5). Children imitate what they see or hear on the media, resulting in a popular culture built on gendered stereotypes.
Media influence is more pronounced during the adolescent stage. A study by Ramasubramanian (2011) established that people harbor negative stereotypes against “female relationships and gender roles” associated with out-group members (p. 501). The gender stereotypes in teen films contribute to the development of negative attitudes in the teens.
Teens are vulnerable because adolescence is a crucial stage in identity formation. Normally, during this stage, early secondary sexual changes in boys improve their social standing while those without the characteristics are labeled immature. Thus, teens face pressure from the social environment to conform to particular qualities associated with either masculinity or femininity. In most cultures, showing emotions is a feminine quality that men should not embrace.
Advertisers capitalize on societal gender roles to sell products. Eisend (2010) argues that media commercials reflect societal ideals regarding female and male behavior, attitudes, and activities. Eisend (2010) further observes that the recurring themes in girl’s magazines involve topics related to “fashion, beauty, romance, and food” (p. 421). Thus, the ads placed in girls’ magazines promote attractiveness, housekeeping, and relationship building.
In contrast, societal masculine ideals encourage boys to suppress feelings of empathy or weakness. Boys are not expected to display compassion or fear, as these are deemed feminine. This attitude has adverse effects on the behavior of boys. Whitaker and Bushman (2013) found that boys are exhibit negative attributes such as violence against girls and depression due to the societal requirement for suppressing emotions.
Additional evidence shows that boys have a higher dropout rate and are more likely to suffer from attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder than girls are (Whitaker & Bushman, 2013). Boys adhere to societal ideals to gain the approval of their male peers. Eisend (2010) argues that society relegates women to lower social ranks and thus, men do not value women’s approval. Failure to meet the set masculine ideals subjects boys to shame and thus, they strive to attain them. However, this leaves them hardened and less self-aware.
On the other hand, studies report that early media exposure is beneficial to children’s cognitive and social development. Research shows that young children can learn from educational television programs leading to improved cognitive development (Smith & Cook, 2012). However, situational and individual factors modulate learning and cognition by influencing a person’s attitudes.
Ramasubramanian (2011) establishes that “pro-social video games enhance positive internal states, which result in positive social development” in young children (p. 503). The internal states, in turn, enhance a child’s evaluation and critical thinking skills leading to better decision-making. Positive internal states also enhance children’s mental resources and socialization skills during interpersonal encounters. Thus, positive internal states can result in thoughtful pro-social decisions.
Other positive effects of early exposure to pro-social media include enhanced constructive behavior (empathy), helping a female experiencing harassment, and reduction in hostile emotions (Ramasubramanian, 2011). In addition, counter-stereotypical media portrayals can modify ingrained negative attitudes towards people of the opposite sex (Ramasubramanian, 2011).
Gender role socialization can also be modified through repeated exposure to positive media images. Television shows portraying women taking up careers considered masculine can change the attitudes of young girls pursue them. Moreover, media programs containing pro-equality messages can encourage women to seek for gender equality and affirmative action in unequal societies.
Conclusion
Media plays a central role in early gender socialization. In particular, gender stereotypes and attitudes existing in society are transferred to children through the media. These stereotypes have negative effects on behavior and attitudes of children towards out-group members as well as on gender roles.
On the other hand, positive media products can promote socialization and cognitive development in children. However, it requires enhanced parental involvement to promote the positive media effects. In sum, the proliferation of media forms coupled with reduced parental involvement has led to negative gender stereotypes and identities in children.
References
Eisend, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of gender roles in advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38, 418-440.
Lou, C., Cheng, Y., Gao, E., Zuo, X., Emerson, M. R. & Zabin, L.S. (2012). Media’s contribution to sexual knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors for adolescents and young adults in three Asian cities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(3), 26-36.
Madden, M., Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., Cortesi, S., & Gasser, U. (2013). Teens and Technology 2013. Pew Internet & American Life Project Report.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The impact of stereotypical versus counterstereotypical media exemplars on racial attitudes, causal attributions, and support for affirmative action. Communication Research, 38, 497-516.
Smith, S. L., & Cook, C. A. (2012). Gender Stereotypes: An Analysis of Popular Films and TV. Geena Davis Institute for Gender and Media.
Whitaker, J. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2013). “Remain calm. Be kind.” Effects of relaxing video games on aggressive and prosocial behaviour. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 88-92