Post Traumatic Growth (PTG)
Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG) is a variable that measures the positive psychological variations that occur after coping with traumatic events. The Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) was used as the instrument to measure PTG in the National Health and Resilience Veteran Study (NHRVS) (Wu et al., 2019, p. 410). The PTGI comprised ten questions, rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 represented “strongly disagree” and 5 represented “strongly agree.”
The questions by Wu et al. (2019) measured five domains of PTG: “spiritual change, new possibilities, relationships with others, personal strength, and appreciation of life” (Wu et al., 2019, p. 410). Wu et al.’s (2019) questions in the PTGI are related to the worst occurrence experienced on the Life Events Checklist (LEC). In the 2019 NHRVS survey, the PTGI marks were calculated by averaging the scores of the ten items (Pietrzak et al., 2021, p. 2).
The PTGI is a valid measure of PTG, with Pietrzak et al. (2021) showing strong correlations between PTG scores and other measures of well-being and resilience. The PTGI has demonstrated good test-retest reliability and internal consistency (Pietrzak et al., 2021, p. 2). Pietrzak et al. (2021) stated that PTG may be related to psychosocial factors, such as social support, coping style, resilience, and self-esteem, which can be measured through surveys, self-reports, and standardized scales.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
The variable Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental health disorder that occurs after experiencing a traumatic event. In the NHRVS, PTSD was measured using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) (Orovou et al., 2021, p. 12). Orovou et al. (2021) employed a 20-question assessment of PTSD symptoms, administered on a 5-point Likert scale.
Orovou et al. (2021) evaluated the data by summing the scores from the 20 questions (par. 13). Orovou et al. (2021) demonstrated that the PCL-5 has good internal consistency and validity. For instance, Orovou et al. (2021) found that the PCL-5 demonstrated high internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity (Orovou et al., 2021, p. 13). Sibrava et al. (2019) reported that PTSD is often analyzed in the context of minority populations (p. 102). According to Sibrava et al. (2019), PTSD can be related to coping style, social support, and psychological resilience.
Ethnic Status
Ethnic status is a demographic variable that refers to an individual’s self-identified racial or ethnic background. In the NHRVS, measurements were made by asking participants to self-identify as one of several racial/ethnic groups. These comprised “White, African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander” (Tedeschi et al., 2018, p. 48). Tedeschi et al. (2018) used a single question that asked respondents to select their race or ethnicity from a list of options. Tedeschi et al. (2018) used the collected data to calculate and report health disparities by race/ethnicity (p. 49).
Assari (2020) notes that ethnic status is needed to identify social and cultural factors that may influence research outcomes (p. 57). The validity of the self-reported ethnic status measure is supported by Assari (2020) and Tedeschi et al. (2018). Assari (2020) and Tedeschi et al. (2018) suggest that self-reporting is reliable for capturing racial and ethnic information. The reliability of the measure is supported by the consistency of the self-reported ethnic status data in Assari (2020), Sibrava et al. (2019), and Tedeschi et al. (2018).
Social Support
Social support is a variable that measures the level of perceived backing from friends, family, and other important people in an individual’s life. The NHRVS study measured social support using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), which consists of 12 questions (Wongpakaran et al., 2011, p. 162). Wongpakaran et al. (2011) asked 12 questions, and participants rated their agreement on a 5-point Likert scale, where “1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree” for every item (Wongpakaran et al., 2011, p. 162). Wongpakaran et al. (2011) added the scores for the 12 questions to create a comprehensive score, where higher marks represented higher levels of perceived social support.
The MSPSS used by Wongpakaran et al. (2011) has been shown to have excellent validity and reliability in previous studies, exhibiting a positive association with well-being and a negative relationship with psychological distress. According to Wongpakaran et al. (2011), psychosocial factors are perceived social support, coping style, and personality traits. Wongpakaran et al. (2011) measured perceived social support, coping style, and personality traits through self-report questionnaires or interviews.
Coping Style
The variable coping style refers to strategies individuals use to manage stress and negative emotions. In the NHRVS, the coping style was measured using the Brief COPE questionnaire, consisting of 28 questions to assess 14 coping styles (Tsai et al., 2016, p. 12). Tsai et al. (2016) asked participants to rate how they use each coping style on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “not at all,” 4 = “a lot”) (Tsai et al., 2015, p. 13). In the NHRVS, participants were requested to answer the Brief COPE questionnaire. Tsai et al. (2016) calculated the scores for each coping style by summing the responses for the relevant items.
The measuring instrument used by Tsai et al. (2016) is valid and reliable, with good internal consistency. Tsai et al. (2016) demonstrated good construct validity in comparison to other measures of coping and well-being. Along with the questionnaire, survey data can also be collected (Fteiha & Awwad, 2020, p. 3). Fteiha and Awwad (2020) support the idea that psychosocial factors, such as emotion regulation, problem-focused coping, and avoidance coping, can be measured using standardized self-report questionnaires relevant to research questions on stress management.
References
Assari, S. (2020). Family socioeconomic status and exposure to childhood trauma: Racial differences. Children, 7(6), 57.
Fteiha, M., & Awwad, N. (2020). Emotional intelligence and its relationship with stress coping style. Health Psychology Open, 7(2), 2055102920970416.
Orovou, E., Theodoropoulou, I. M., & Antoniou, E. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) in Greek women after cesarean section. Plos One, 16(8), e0255689.
Pietrzak, R. H., Tsai, J., & Southwick, S. M. (2021). Association of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder with post-traumatic psychological growth among U.S. veterans during the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), 1-5.
Sibrava, N. J., Bjornsson, A. S., Pérez Benítez, A. C. I., Moitra, E., Weisberg, R. B., & Keller, M. B. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination. American Psychologist, 74(1), 101-116.
Tedeschi, R. G., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Taku, K., & Calhoun, L. G. (2018). Post-traumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. Routledge.
Tsai, J., El-Gabalawy, R., Sledge, W. H., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2015). Post-traumatic growth among veterans in the USA: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Psychological Medicine, 45(1), 165–179.
Tsai, J., Sippel, L. M., Mota, N., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2016). Longitudinal course of post-traumatic growth among U.s. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Depression and Anxiety, 33(1), 9–18.
Wongpakaran, T., Wongpakaran, N., & Ruktrakul, R. (2011). Reliability and validity of the multidimensional scale of perceived social Support (MSPSS): Thai version. Clinical practice and epidemiology in mental health: CP & EMH, 7, 161-166.
Wu, X., Kaminga, A. C., Dai, W., Deng, J., Wang, Z., Pan, X., & Liu, A. (2019). The prevalence of moderate-to-high posttraumatic growth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 243, 408–415.