Abstract
This paper focuses on juxtaposing between morning types and evening types in terms of their disposition towards sensations. The research is based on the hypothesis that evening types are more sensation seekers than morning types. This paper is based on a research that was carried out. In the research, a total number of 1243 participants filled in questionnaires on how they are likely to behave after waking depending on there sleeping times.
The 1243 participants were students from a psychology class who were attending a seminar. The seminar leader used two questionnaires to collect data from the students, that is, the sensation scale and morningness and eveningness scale questionnaires. After collecting and analyzing the data, on the whole, the results highlight the comparison between evening types and morning types with regard to sensation seeking.
Introduction
Morningness-eveningness preference (circadian typology) can be considered one of the most marked individual differences in circadian rhythms, which is represented along a continuum between two extremes: morning types(sometimes labeled “larks” ) go to bed and awake early; evening types (sometimes labeled “owls” ) have later bedtime and wake up time and are tired when waking up (Tonneti et al, 2009).
There greater chunk of the population are intermediate types i.e. they are moderate in their preference of excitement and search for sensational experiences (Tonneti et al, 2009).
They are neither too inclined towards risky behavior nor are they people who shy off from challenge and thrill. Sensation-seeking, is a term used to refer to the inclination by individuals to seek out pleasurable moments or excitement in life. People with this trait, which is also known as excitement seeking trait, go an extra mile just to have fun and enjoy moments in their life. Such like people seek to experience and enjoy life not for any other reason but for the sake of the experience or fun in itself.
According to Horvath and Zuckerman (1992) in there search for novel and intense sensation and experience, sensation seekers take various kinds of risks. They take physical risks in dangerous sports and vocations. They take physical and legal risks when they drive too fast, recklessly or while intoxicated (Horvath and Zuckerman, 1992). They volunteer for psychological experiments regarded as risky, tend to drink too heavily, they smoke thus accepting health risk. They tend to make bigger bets in gambling, associated with larger increases in arousal, and show a tendency to make risky financial investments (Horvath and Zuckerman, 1992). Their tendency to engage in varied sexual activities with a variety of partners puts them at greater risk for venereal diseases, including Autoimmune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (Horvath and Zuckerman, 1992). High sensation seeking is a major trait of psychopaths who seem almost oblivious to the risks of their criminal activities, compared to non-psychopathic criminals.
The big question would be to consider why some people are sensation seekers i.e. go for experiences against all odds while others are reserved and laid back. This could be explained by the possibility that excitement seekers find more value in activities and experiences than non-excitement seekers (Tonneti et al, 2009). For instance, these individuals will go for adrenaline drawing activities because in them they find a high that is more than one can ever get doing the ordinary. Excitement or sensation seekers find a lot of stimulation from daring the devil. They enjoy taking risk and only passion or being on the edge makes them tick in life. They are lured to risky activities because what they feel in such intense experiences is more rewarding and moving and thus outweighs the fear of repercussions due to risk involved.
An alternative, but not necessarily contradictory, hypothesis is that high sensation seekers have an ‘optimistic bias,’ that is, they see themselves less at risk and having less possibility of a negative outcome of the risky activity(Horvath and Zuckerman, 1992).
In their research, Horvath and Zuckerman (1992) asked Ss to rate the riskiness of a variety of activities. They further asked the Ss to indicate how many times they had engaged in those activities. The correlation between appraised risk and experience was high (r = -0.56) and indicated that the more experience one had doing something, the less risky the activity was judged to be.
This finding can be explained by the development of a sense of competence because of non-injurious experience. Unrealistic optimism increases with perceived controllability (Weinstein, 1987 as quoted by Horvath & Zuckerman, 1992).
Lack of personal experience with an activity does not necessarily make it seem risky. Peer influence is another potential explanation for the attraction of risky activities for high sensation seekers. If high sensation seekers are attracted to peer groups interested in sensation seeking activities, their risk appraisals of these activities could be changed and they would receive reinforcement for engaging in such activities.
Many high sensation seeking activities in young people start with a dare from their peers. To refuse a dare is to risk losing the esteem of valued friends; subjectively this risk can outweigh the risk of the dared activity itself (Horvath &Zuckerman, 1992).
A greater tendency towards eveningness has been observed in different behavioral disorders: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, bulimia, depression, drug addiction, seasonal depression. These associations between eveningness and certain disorders could be modulated by specific personality traits.
The relationship between morningness-eveningness preference and personality features has been extensively analyzed. As regards Eysenk’s personality model, eveningness resulted positively correlated extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
With reference to the big five-personality model, all studies carried out on this topic showed that evening types were less conscientious than morning types. With regard to personality traits that may be related to higher tendency to engage in risky behavior, eveningness resulted positively related to impulsivity, novelty seeking and sensation seeking.
The association was also assessed in two different countries (Spain and Italy) to verify if the relationship was or not modulated by socio-cultural factors. Relevant differences were not observed between the two countries taking into account that circadian typology are mainly related to generic and biological factors as well as sensation seeking (Tonneti, Adan, Caci, De paschalis, Fabbri & Natal, 2010).
On the basis of the only one study carried out on this topic, it can be posited that evening types will be more sensation seekers than morning types.
Method
The morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQr) and the sensation seeking scale (SSS) were administered. MEQr included five questions taken from the original 19 items version developed by Horne and Östberg. Three items requested preferred time for going to bed, getting up and the hour of the day when peak personal efficiency is maximum. Moreover, participants also had to assess the degree of tiredness within the first half hour after their awakening and to indicate which circadian type they thought they belonged to.
The MEQr score was obtained by summing scores of each question. A specific number of choices of answers are given, indicating: definite morning type, moderate morning type, neither type, moderate evening type, nor definite evening type. A time scale is employed for a few questions. Each question is given a loading factor determined from item analysis. The scores are added and the sum converted into a five-point morningness-eveningness scale:
- Definitely morning type 32-28
- Moderately morning type 27-23
- Neither type 22-16
- Moderately evening type 15-11
- Definitely evening type 10-6
Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) comprised 40 items with a forced choice response format. This tool measures the following four subscales: thrill and adventure seeking (TAS); experience seeking (ES); disinhibition (DIS); boredom susceptibility (BS). The thrill and adventure seeking scale highlights individuals’ disposition towards activities that are high speed and contain some form of danger. ES assesses the seeking of new experiences through the mind and senses and a nonconformist style of life.
DIS regards interest in socially and sexually disinhibited activities. BS represents an aversion for the routine and repetitive. Each subscale includes 10 items with score ranging between 0 and 10. The total score is obtained by summing scores of each subscale and ranges between 0 and 40. Higher scores on the subscales reflect a higher prevalence of these factors, as well as higher total score corresponds to a higher sensation seeker.
Results
This study had more evening types than morning types though the intermediate outnumbered the two extremes. This is portrayed by the data from the study. The mean in the morningness-eveningness scale was 16.5 while the range 6-30. This shows that there were more definite evening types than definite morning types.
The sensation seeking scale also inclined most towards the evening types though there was much weight at the intermediate types. The SSS mean was 10.5 while the range stood at 2-19. The results were, on the whole, comparable when considering the MEQr and the SSS results separately.
Trying to understand which factor played the most significant role in affecting sensation seeking, referring to the SSS total score we applied the median split-half criterion, separately for males and females, to divide participants in two different groups: high and low sensation seekers.
The results show that most evening types are more sensation seekers than the morning types. The results confirm the hypothesis mentioned above that evening types are more sensation seekers than morning types.
Discussion
The results discussed confirm the hypothesis that evening types are higher sensation seekers than morning types. The evening types scored highly compared to the morning types on the sensation seeking scale. Not only on the SSS, the evening types generally scored highly on all subscales employed.
The finding that higher sensation seeking is more in the evening types, is further supported by previous studies on the relationship between circadian typology and novelty seeking on the one hand and impulsivity on the other (higher novelty seeking and impulsivity in evening types). In fact sensation seeking is significantly correlated to novelty seeking as well as impulsivity.
From the morningness-eveningness data obtained by Horne & Ostberg (1976) some interesting trends can be seen. Although the average morning type appears to start the day nearly two hours earlier than the evening type the overall higher temperature curve up to the peak time for the former group appears not be merely advancement on the latter by two hours. The morning type display a relatively rapid waking temperature rise, culminating in a plateau which is terminated in a slight but obvious peak at about 19.30 hr.
The evening type tend to display a steady temperature rise throughout the day; eventually reaching a distinct peak of similar amplitude but about 70 min later than that of the morning type. After the peaks have been reached the rates of temperature decline for both groups appear to be similar, but with the evening type lagging behind the morning type by about an hour, leading to a difference in bed time of about I~A hours.
Whilst the difference in peak times between the two groups is probably related to the evidence that morning types have a sleep-wake life style about an hour in advance of evening types, the dynamics of the temperature curves of the two groups from arising to peak times appears not just to be a reflection of such a phase lag.
Even though bed time and arising time are significantly correlated with peak time, squaring these correlations to obtain the variance shows that only a minority of the total variance of peak times can be accounted for by either bed time or arising time. Thus there appears to be more to the determination of peak time than sleep-wake habits.
Based on the involvement of sensation seeking in some psychiatric disorders (substance abuse disorder and bipolar disorder) circadian typology assessment could be helpful in identifying people at higher risk of developing some psychiatric pathology. Furthermore, circadian typology could have relevant implications in the therapeutic field too. For instance, experimental data could be collected to assess if circadian preference manipulation (for example, with light therapy) has positive effects on psychiatric symptomatology.
Comparison of Horne &Ostberg (1976)’s findings with those of the present study reveals an obvious similarity between the two sets of results. From both the peak time and the correlation data of the present study it appears that although there is a tendency for extraverts to be evening types and introverts morning types a more significant differentiation of the peak times of these subjects can be attained though the morningness–eveningness dimension.
Although extraversion-introversion might appear to play a minor role in morningness- eveningness there is clearly much more to momingness-eveningness than extraversion-introversion. If the relation was structurally triangulated it appears that sensation seekers do not focus on risk in the process but rather on risk as an end towards which to aspire.
Analysis suggests that risk appraisal is a consequence rather than a cause of risky behavior. Of course, there is risk appraisal before one chooses to engage in any risky behavior. However, risk appraisal for novel activities has been shown to be negatively related to sensation seeking (Horvath & Zuckerman, 1979).
Reference List
Horne, A & Östberg, O. (1976). Individual differences in human circadian Rhythms. Biological Psychology. 5, 179-190.
Horvath,P, & Zuckerman, M. (1992). Sensation Seeking, Risk Appraisal, and Risky Behavior. Personal Individual Difference. 14 (1), 111-115.
Tonneti, L. Adan, A. CACI, H. De paschalis, V. Fabbri, M, & Natal, V. (2009). Morningness-Eveningness Preference and Sensation Seeking. European Psychiatry. 25, 111-115